Overview of Themes Between 1815 and 1871, Europe witnessed many reform movements, uprisings, and revolutions. The participants in these events were inspired by ideologies, or theories of society and government, that lay the foundation for political action. These ideologies – liberalism, conservatism, socialism, and nationalism – were produced by Western historical developments and endowed the West with a distinctive political culture.

Liberalism Main principle: political, social, and economic freedoms are paramount, the main function of government is to protect these freedoms. Agenda-varies from country to country, but 3 main objectives: to establish and protect the individual rights, constitutions to expand the right to vote to all property owners to promote free trade (laissez faire)

Liberals: Opposed what? Favored what? Supported by whom? Opposed: Aristocratic privilege Favored: Equality before the law Limited monarchy Supported by: Urban middle class of Professionals Merchants Manufacturers Why M-C? They felt most aggrieved by their lack of political rights and believed that their growing wealth gave them a basis for claiming a share of political power.

Women? Lower classes? Right to vote (the franchise): only to property owners, especially m-c and male Not lower classes. Poor could not be trusted to elect reps who would protect property rights. No women either. Separate spheres. Women had the home. Men had public affairs

Conservatism: Throne, land and altar united! Goals: sought to preserve the established order, in particular monarchy and aristocracy, (and the Church) prevent the spread of those movements born of the French Revolution: liberalism and nationalism. Fine line sep. conservatism (gradual change allowed) from reaction (reject any change and return to old order) Ideological foundation of reactionary movements found in conservatism

Socialism CAUSES: Desire to reorganize society to establish cooperation and a new sense of community. Increasing misery of working classes disturbed liberal thinkers (Bentham and Mill), who proposed a modification of laissez-faire economics. IR=disaster Liberal practices in politics and economics seemed to promote selfish individualism and the fragmenting of society.

Socialists Beliefs Proposed a system of greater economic equality planned by the government (sometimes called Utopian Socialists) Every social institution should have as its main goal improved conditions for the poor. Planned economy

Other forms of Socialism Christian Socialism (began in England around 1848) Believed the evils of industrialism would be ended by following Christian principles. Believed the evils of industrialism would be ended by following Christian principles. Attempted to bridge the gap between the anti- religious drift of socialism and the need for Christian social justice for workers. Attempted to bridge the gap between the anti- religious drift of socialism and the need for Christian social justice for workers.

Scientific Socialism or Marxism Developed by Karl Marx and Friederich Engels The Communist Manifesto (1848) Considered the “bible” of communism Intended to replace utopian hopes and dreams with a militant blueprint for socialist working class success. Theory of dialectical materialism The economic interpretation of history: all human history has been determined by economic factors (mainly who controls the means of production and distribution). The class struggle: Since the beginning of time there has been a class struggle between the rich and the poor or the exploiters and the exploited.

Scientific Socialism or Marxism Theory of dialectical materialism (continued) Theory of Surplus Value: the true value of a product was labor and, since the worker received a small portion of his just labor price, the difference was surplus value, “stolen” from him by the capitalist. Socialism was inevitable: Capitalism contained the seeds of its own destruction (overproduction, unemployment, etc.) Violent revolution: The increasing gap between proletariat and bourgeoisie will be so great that the working classes will rise up in revolution and overthrow the elite bourgeoisie. Will create a “dictatorship of the proletariat.” “WORKING MEN OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!” Creation of a classless society: Will result as modern capitalism is dismantled. “From each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs,” will take place.

How does Communism differ from other forms of socialism? Its call for REVOLUTION Its emphasis on class conflict Its insistence on complete economic equality

Nationalism: The Unity of the People First appeared during French Revolution Nation=large community of people with a sense of unity based on a shared homeland and culture Believes that nations have a right to have their own political institutions and that the interests of the nation are supreme

19 th C. Nationalists Wanted to estab. nation-states based on self- determination Nation has a right to be ruled only by its own members All members of nation should be included in the state Often spoke of the “antiquity” of their nation Had always been a distinct German or French or Swiss or Italian people living in their respective homelands Really a fiction. Little cultural unity. Even w/in a nation state there is linguistic, religious and ethnic diversity. Really a myth!