03_00-CS.JPG Ch. 3 Policy and History

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Downstream

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WHAT What is Environmental Policy and Why is it needed?

Environmental policy aims to protect environmental quality AND to protect equity in use of resources –Protects commons –Prevents “free riders” with law, regulations, or taxing –Addresses external costs borne by those other than buyers/sellers

03_02.JPG Policy plays central role in how we address environmental problems. How are policies established?

Policy Input –Science: information and analysis –Ethics & Economics: criteria to assess extent/nature of problem –Government: intersects with citizens, organizations, private sector to find solutions

Example: Tijuana River –Science: sewage produces pathogens/hypoxia –Ethics/Economics: Beach closures, $ losses from recreation/tourism Those downstream suffer –Government: Tijuana River Valley Estuary and Beach Cleanup Act –Funds for sewage treatment

++ Perception: overly restrictive Costs to developers: permits, monitoring, oversight Gradual development of most environmental problems or “frog in pot” Factors Hindering Environmental Policy

Policy Approaches –Command and Control: Most common “Command and Control” or rules and punishment

–Subsidies Government gift of cash/resources to encourage activity seen as beneficial Controversial – for example the General Mining Law of 1872 allows up to $1 billion of minerals to be extracted from public land without royalties to taxpayers Green Scissors Report (p. 9) claims that in 2003 $58 billion subsidies provided for 68 activities that harmed the environmentGreen Scissors Report Alternatives to C and C

Green Taxes – help to internalize external costs Ex. EU taxes on energyEU taxes on energy Tax incentives –encourage resource conservation

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Permit Trading or “Cap and Trade” –Government creates market in permits –Issues permits to companies who may buy, sell, or trade them –Company that reduces its pollution may sell its credit to another –NGOs may buy and “retire” credits –“hot spots” of pollution - criticism

Environmental Defense Fund – proponents of cap and tradeEnvironmental Defense Fund Program resulted from amendments to Clean Air Act in % reductions in SO 2 by 2005

Waves of legislation –1. Early – through late 1800’s – promoted settlement and use of resources –Ex. Homestead Act 1862 – if one lives, cultivates, builds on federal land for 5 years – 160 acres becomes their property

03_07a.jpg Waves of legislation 1. Early – through late 1800’s – promoted settlement and use of resources

03_07b.jpg 2 nd wave of legislation - Late 1800’s through early 1900’s Shift toward mitigation of impacts caused by first Creation of national parks, forest preserves, wildlife refuges

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03_08.JPG 3 rd wave - Mid to late 20 th century –responded to pollution resulting from prosperity –Prompting Events: Silent Spring Cuyahoga River Fires Santa Barbara Oil Spill 1969 –Result: today air, water cleaner

03_09.JPG Cuyahoga River caught fire several times in 50’s and 60’s

03_10a.jpg Social Context 60s and 70s -evidence of widespread environmental problems -could visualize policies and solutions -supportive leaders Changed in 80s – perception that env. laws hurt business

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1970 – Dawn of Modern Era of Environmental Policy Jan 1, 1970 Nixon signed NEPA – National Environmental Policy Act –Created Council on Environmental Quality – evolved into the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) –Required Environmental Impact Statements (EIS)

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Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) –Filed for any major action that involved federal funding ex. Dam, highway, building –Include: Nature of proposal and need Environmental impacts of proposal – short-term and long-term Alternatives to reduce adverse effects

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United Nations – UN Environmental Programme European Union: can sign treaties on behalf of 27 member nations – same authority as national law NGOs – nongovernmental organizations –Nature Conservancy, Greenpeace, Conservational International, Sierra Club WTO – World Trade Organization : represents multinational corporations World Bank – loans to poor countries for major projects including dams International Policy

Montreal Protocol summary– 1987Montreal Protocol –160 nations agreed to reduce ozone depleting chemicals –Most successful environmental treaty thus far Montreal Protocol videoMontreal Protocol –What factors contributed to its success?