Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Thinking in Middle childhood Thought becomes more logical Can now pass Piagetian conservation tasks Understanding of spatial concepts improves Can now give clear, well organanized directions; can draw and read maps

Piaget’s Theory: Achievements of the Concrete Operational Stage Conservation Decentration Reversibility Classification Seriation Transitive inference Spatial Reasoning Directions Maps

Piaget’s Theory: Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought Operations work best with objects that are concrete Problems with abstract ideas Horizontal décalage Master concrete operational tasks gradually

Further Research on Concrete Operations Culture and schooling affect performance on tasks Neo-Piagetians suggest information processing helps Automatic cognitive schemes free up working memory Spread from central conceptual structure to wide range of situations

Key Information Processing Improvements Increase in information-processing capacity Gains in cognitive inhibition Both may be related to brain development

Attention in Middle Childhood Attention becomes more: Selective Adaptable Planful

Development of Attention Strategies Production deficiency Control deficiency Utilization deficiency Effective strategy use

Steps in Planning Postponing action to weigh alternatives Organizing task materials Remembering steps of plan Monitoring how well plan works Revising if necessary

Development of Memory Strategies Rehearsal – early grade school Organization – soon after rehearsal Knowledge base helps organization Elaboration – end of middle childhood Meaningful chunks of information • Schooling promotes using these memory strategies

Theory of Mind in Middle Childhood See mind as active, constructive Understand more about sources of knowledge Mental inferences False beliefs Consider interactions of variables Schooling promotes developing theory of mind

Promoting Cognitive Self-Regulation Point out special demands of tasks Encourage use of strategies Emphasize value of self-correction

Information Processing and Academic Learning Reading By the end of this period, makes transition from “learn to read” to “reading to learn” Mathematics Can now master more complex mathematical skills

Intelligence testing What is intelligence anyway? How many ‘intelligences’ do YOU have?

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic Logico-mathematical Musical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Naturalist Interpersonal Intrapersonal

How is Intelligence measured?: IQ Tests Individually-Administered Tests Examiners need training & experience Provide insights about accuracy of score Identify highly intelligent and children with learning problems Group Tests Allow testing of large groups Require little training to administer Useful for instructional planning Identify students who need individual testing

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Explaining Differences in IQ Genetics Accounts for about half of differences Environment SES Culture Communication styles Cultural bias in test content

Stereotype Threat The fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype that can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance Ex: Girls don’t do well on Math exams…

Effects of Stereotype Threat on Performance

Language Development in Middle Childhood Vocabulary Increases fourfold during school years 20 new words a day Grammar Passive voice Infinitive phrases Pragmatics Adjust to people and situations Phrase requests to get what they want

Learning Two Languages Bilingual Development Learn both languages at the same time Learn first language, then second Sensitive period - childhood Bilingual Education Language immersion Bilingual education

Academic Achievement and Class Size

Educational Philosophies Traditional v. Constructivist Classrooms New Philosophical Directions Social-constructivist Reciprocal teaching Communities of learners Teacher-student Interaction Self-fulfilling prophesies Grouping Practices

Computers and Academic Learning Computers and Internet access in virtually all North American schools Educational software Basic skills practice New knowledge Word processing Programming skills Homework

Grouping Practices in Schools Homogeneous ability groups Multigrade classrooms Cooperative learning

Children with Learning Difficulties Difficulties include: Mild mental retardation Learning disabilities - 5–10% of children Law requires “least restrictive placement” Mainstreaming Full inclusion

Gifted and Talented Children Exceptional intellectual strength Usually measured by high IQ Talented Outstanding performance in a specific field Measured by divergent thinking and creativity

Asian Schools versus North American Schools Asian schools show more: Cultural valuing of academic achievement Emphasis on effort High-quality education for all Time devoted to instruction

Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood

Erikson’s Theory: Industry versus Inferiority Pessimism and lack of confidence in own ability to do things well. Family environment, teachers, peers, can contribute to negative feelings. Industry Developing a sense of competence at useful skills. School provides many opportunities.

Self-Concept in Middle Childhood More refined me-self Social comparisons Emphasize competencies Both positive and negative Cognitive development affects structure of self-concept Perspective taking Social & cultural development affect content of self-concept Real self vs. ideal self

Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood Hierarchically structured Separate areas and general self-esteem Drops first few years in school, then rises

Influences on Self-Esteem Culture Child-rearing practices Messages from adults Attributions Mastery-oriented Learned helplessness

Generational Changes in Self-Esteem

Achievement-Related Attributions Learned Helplessness Attribute failure to ability Fixed view of ability Cannot be changed Focus on performance goals Mastery-Oriented Attribute success to ability Incremental view of ability Can improve by trying Focus on learning goals

Emotional Development in Middle Childhood Self-Conscious Emotions Pride Guilt Emotional Understanding Explain using internal states Understand mixed emotions Emotional Self-Regulation Motivated by self-esteem and peer approval Emotional self-efficacy

Development of Distributive Justice Development of Distributive Justice beliefs about how to divide up material goods fairly Equality: 5 – 6 years Merit: 6 – 7 years Benevolence: around 8 years

Peer Groups Formed from proximity, similarity Adopt similar dress and behavior Peer Culture Relational aggression Exclusion

Friendship in Middle Childhood Personal qualities, trust become important More selective in choosing friends Friendships can last several years Influence each other’s behavior

Peer Acceptance Categories Popular Popular-prosocial Popular-antisocial Rejected Rejected-aggressive Rejected-withdrawn Controversial Neglected

Gender Typing in Middle Childhood Gender Stereotypes Extend stereotypes to include personalities and school subjects More flexible about behavior Gender Identity Boys more masculine Girls less feminine Cultural Factors

Family Relationships Parents Siblings Coregulation Rivalry Companionship and assistance

Types of Families Traditional Employed parents One-child Gay & lesbian parents Single parents Divorced parents Blended Extended

International Divorce Rates

Consequences of Parental Divorce Immediate Instability, conflict, drop in income Parental stress, disorganization Consequences affected by: Age Temperament Sex Long-Term Improved adjustment after 2 years Boys, children with difficult temperaments more likely to have problems Father’s involvement affects adjustment

Helping Families Through Divorce Divorce mediation Joint custody Child support

Blended Families Father-Stepmother Mother-Stepfather Often leads to reduced father-child contact Children in fathers’ custody often react negatively Girls & stepmothers slow to get along at first, more positive interaction later Mother-Stepfather Most frequent Boys usually adjust quickly Girls adapt less favorably Older children and adolescents of both sexes display more problems

Maternal Employment and Child Development Benefits Higher self-esteem Positive family and peer relations Fewer gender stereotypes Better grades More father involvement Drawbacks Less time for children Risk of ineffective parenting

Support for Working Parents Flexible schedules, job sharing Sick leave Involvement of other parent Equal pay and opportunities Quality child care

Fears and Anxieties in Middle Childhood Fears of dark, thunder, lightning, supernatural beings persist School phobia 5–7 years: separation from home 11–13 years: particular aspects of school Fears of real elements of environment

Prevention and Treatment Child Sexual Abuse Characteristics of Victims More often female Reported in middle childhood of Abusers Usually Male Parent or known by parent Consequences Emotional reactions Physical symptoms Effects on behavior Prevention and Treatment Prevention: education Treatment: long-term therapy

Resources That Foster Resiliency Personal Family School Community