Chapter 1: Introduction Chemistry 1020: Interpretive chemistry Andy Aspaas, Instructor

What is chemistry? “The science that deals with the materials of the universe and the changes that these materials undergo.” Chemistry in relation to other sciences

Chemistry around us Advances from chemistry Medicine Agriculture Energy Plastics Problems from chemistry?

Scientific problem solving The scientific method: process behind all scientific inquiry Flexible, changes when new information is learned Start with a question, problem or observation Hypothesis: possible explanation Experimentation: controlled process of gathering new information Observations, do they support the hypothesis? Theory: a tested hypothesis, can still be revised

Law vs. theory Natural law: generally observed behavior, result of measurements Theory: our attempt to explain why certain behaviors happen Scientific method is still limited by human imperfection

How to learn chemistry Reading, vocabulary, memorization are only a start Should be considered a minor part of your learning process in chemistry Problem solving skills are even more important! Why practice homework problems are assigned Struggle with them, use answers carefully Mistakes can be valuable

Chapter 2: Scientific Notation Chemistry 1020: Interpretive chemistry Andy Aspaas, Instructor

Types of observations Observations are a key part of any type of scientific research Qualitative: a description (a white solid was formed) Quantitative: a specific measurement (the product weighs 1.43 grams)

Measurements and numbers Measurements must contain both a number and a unit - without both, the measurement is meaningless Many numbers in measurements are very large or very small Distance from earth to sun: 93,000,000 miles Width of an oxygen atom: 0.00000000013 meters Is there an easier way to deal with such ungainly numbers?

Scientific notation Used to make very large or very small numbers more manageable Multiply a number between 1 and 10 by any power of 10 200 in scientific notation? For even larger numbers, count the number of places the decimal point must move, and make that the power of 10 230,000,000,000 in scientific notation?

Scientific notation Works with small numbers too For small numbers, move the decimal point to the right, and use that as the negative power of 10 Left is positive, “LIP” Using a calculator The E or EE button on your scientific calculator

Units of measurement Unit: which scale or standard is used for a particular measurement English system: US residents are most familiar with Metric system: used in most of the rest of the world SI, or International System, used in scientific work Based on metric system Agreed upon by scientists worldwide

Some fundamental SI units Quantity Name of unit Abbreviation mass kilogram kg length meter m time second s temperature kelvin K • Most other SI units can be derived from these

Prefixes to SI units Prefix Symbol Meaning Power of 10 mega M 1,000,000 106 kilo k 1000 103 deci d 0.1 10-1 milli m 0.001 10-3 micro µ 0.000001 10-6 nano n 0.000000001 10-9

Length Fundamental SI unit for length: meter A little longer than a yard Using prefixes as the power of 10 1 mm = 10-3 m = 0.001 m 1 inch = 2.54 cm Measured with a ruler or caliper

Volume Amount of 3-dimensional space occupied by an object Unit: liter (L) 1 L = 1 dm3 (cubic decimeter) 1 millileter (mL) = 1 cm3 Commonly used volume unit in chemistry Volume measurements: Graduated cylinder Syringe Buret

Mass The specific amount of matter present in an object Measured on a balance Not to be confused with weight (Force of gravity acting on the mass of an object) Dependent on the strength of gravity Earth vs. moon? Measured on a scale Mass used much more commonly in chemistry SI fundamental unit: kilogram

Uncertainty in measurement Analog measurements - measured mechanically against some type of physical scale Estimate required for last digit of measurement Last digit = the uncertain digit Can be expressed as ± amount of the uncertain digit (4.542 ± 0.001) Digital measurements - read from a display Last digit still uncertain even though you don’t do an estimation

Accuracy vs. Precision Accuracy: how close a single measurement or set of measurements are to their true value Precision: how similar a number of measurements are Dartboard example Beaker of water example

Significant figures Sum of all certain numbers in a measurement plus the first uncertain number Indicates the amount of precision with which a measurement can be made Since each measurement contains uncertainty, that uncertainty must be tracked when manipulating the measurements

How many sig figs does a measurement have? Nonzero integers are always significant (1 thru 9) Leading zeroes (on the left) are never significant Captive zeroes are always significant Trailing zeroes (at the end) are only significant if there’s a decimal point Exact numbers (obtained by counting) have an infinite number of sig figs

Rounding off Calculators don’t understand sig figs Will return as many digits to you as possible You must round the answer to the correct number of sig figs Look at the digit to the right of the last sig fig 0-4, just drop it and everything to the right 5-9, increase last sig fig by one, drop rest Look only at the one digit to the right of the last sig fig, ignore all others!

Determining sig figs in calculations When multiplying or dividing, find the measurement with the smallest number of sig figs Answer must be rounded to that many sig figs When adding or subtracting, find the measurement with the smallest number of decimal places Answer must be rounded to that many decimal places Practice!

Dimensional analysis introduction We do this all the time without even thinking about it Example: planning a party 15 guests 3 drinks per guest How many drinks should you buy? Conversion factor: a ratio of two measurements with different units that are equal to each other Expressed as a fraction, two possible orders!

Dimensional analysis calculations Set up an equation like this Known quantity x conversion factor = unknown quantity Orient conversion factor so units of known quantity are cancelled Multiply the known by the conversion factor The only remaining unit should be the one you’re solving for Correct for sig figs Does the answer make sense? Practice, practice, practice, practice, practice!

Temperature scales Fahrenheit scale: used in the US Celsius scale: used in most rest of world, and by most scientists Kelvin scale: SI base unit of temperature 0 K is lowest possible theoretical temperature

Temperature scales Fahrenheit Celsius Kelvin Absolute zero -460 °F Water freezes 32 °F 0 °C 273 K Body temp 98.6 °F 37 °C 310 K Water boils 212 °F 100 °C 373 K

Temperature conversions Celsius to Kelvin Temperature units are the same size Zero points are different TK = T°C + 273 Kelvin to Celsius Solve above for T°C T°C = TK - 273

Fahrenheit and Celsius Different degree units and zero points T°F = 1.80(T°C) + 32 T°C = (T°F - 32) / 1.80

Density Density: amount of matter present in a given volume of substance Density = mass / volume Units could be kg/L, g/cm3, g/mL, etc.