Components of the Term Vernacular One View 1a. Uncodified or unstandardized variety 1b. Acquired in the home, as a first variety 1c. Used for relatively circumscribed functions Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 77. 1/21

Components of the Term Vernacular Four Alternate Views 2. Any non-official language of a country 3. Any minority language of a country 4. The most colloquial variety in a person's linguistic repertoire 5. Language of everyday communication Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 77. 2/21

Standard Languages 1 “A standard variety is generally one which  is written  has undergone some degree of regularization or codification  is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a community  is used for H functions alongside a diversity of L varieties.” Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 78-79. 3/21

Standard Languages 2 “This is a very general definition and it immediately excludes most of the world's four or five thousand languages. Only a minority of the world's languages are written, and an even smaller minority are standardized in the sense of codified and accepted by the community as suitable for formal functions.” Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 78-79. 4/21

Standard Languages 3 “A standard dialect has no particular linguistic merits, whether in vocabulary, grammar or pronunciation. It is simply the dialect of those who are politically powerful and socially prestigious.” Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 79. 5/21

Lingua Francas  “language of wider communication”  “A lingua franca is a language used for communication between people whose first languages differ.”  “More generally, however, the term lingua franca describes a language serving as a regular means of communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community.” Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, pp. 82-83. 6/21

Lingua Francas Tanzania: Swahili Papua New Guinea: Tok Pisin former USSR: Russian Arabic-speaking world: Classical Arabic East Africa: Swahili West Africa: Hausa China: Mandarin Holmes, Janet. 2013. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 4th edition. London: Pearson, p. 84. 7/21

Identifying Characteristics of a Pidgin Language 1. It is used in restricted domains and functions 2. It has a simplified structure and limited vocabulary compared to the source languages 3. It generally has low prestige and attracts negative attitudes—especially from outsiders Holmes, Janet. 2008. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 3rd edition. London: Longman, pp. 85-86. 8/21:3

Simplified Comparison of Pidgins and Creoles Pidgin Creole* Native Speakers none yes Functions limited unlimited Domains restricted unrestricted Vocabulary small rich Morphology none/little expanded Structure irregular regularized Solidarity no yes/can Prestige no yes/can *This Creole is a fully developed one. Holmes, Janet. 2008. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 3rd edition. London: Longman, pp. 83-94. 9/21

African American English 1 Phonology  r-deletion (NOT unique to AAE = NU) guard god  l-deletion (some speakers) toll toe  Consonant cluster simplification (NU) passed pass Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 412-414. 10/21:6

African American English 2  Neutralization of [] and [] before nasals (NU) pin pen  Loss of interdental fricatives (NU) thing  fing this, that, these, those  [d] Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 412-414. 11/21:4

African American English 3 Syntax  Double negatives (NOT unique to AAE) He don’t know nothing.  Deletion of ‘be’ SAE AAE He is / He’s nice He nice They are / They’re mine They mine Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 414-417. 12/21

African American English 4  Habitual ‘be’ John be happy. John is always happy. John happy. John is happy now. He be late. He is habitually late. He late. He is late this time. Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 414-417. 13/21

African American English 5 Vocabulary NOTHING in FR&H (some of it may NOT be unique to AAE) Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1998. An Introduction to Language, 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, pp. 412-417. 14/21

Multiple Negation Holmes, Janet. 2001. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, 2nd edition. London: Longman, p. 178. 15/21

History of Jamaican Creole 1  Late 17th century  British settlers raising sugarcane  Slaves imported  CONTACT Language—pidgin arose (English vocabulary; simplified syntax; African influences in pronunciation, maybe 10% of the vocabulary, and some syntax) Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 82-83. 16/21

History of Jamaican Creole 2  Subsequent generations of slaves learned this language (used with masters and fellow slaves)  Evolved, "transformed into a much more complex and flexible language called a creole (defined technically as a pidgin which becomes the first language of a group)" (p. 83) Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 82-83. 17/21

Standard English and Jamaican Creole 1 Standard English Jamaican Creole Plurals the other girls di addah girl dem with those other girls wid dem addah girl Past time I went yesterday mi go yeside I told you so already me tel yu so aredi I had already walked mi ben waak home huom aredi I have finished sleeping mi don sliip Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, p. 84. 18/21

Standard English and Jamaican Creole 2 Standard English Jamaican Creole Present what are you doing whey you a dhu out yah? out there? where are you going? whey you a go? Possession the man’s hat di man hat the man’s woman di man woman didn’t like this noh like dis Montgomery, Martin. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, p. 84. 19/21

Jamaican Creole Continuum Broadest Standard Creole English 20/21

Schematic of Hypothetical Repertoires Broadest Standard Creole English Speaker | | 1 2 3 4 5 The horizontal length of the line represents the breadth of the speaker's repertoire. Based on Martin Montgomery. 1995. An Introduction to Language and Society, 2nd edition. London: Routledge, pp. 85. 21/21