Cross-cultural Variation Child rearing practices vary considerably from place to place Environment Traditions Beliefs about children Does this result in different attachment patterns? Universal vs. culturally specific

Cross-cultural Research Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) Meta analysis of studies of attachment in different countries Looked at proportions of different SSC attachment types Secure attachment always the most common, but significant variation

Cross-cultural Research SecureAvoidantResistant USA65%21%14% Regular close contact Germany57%35%8% Independence is valued Israel64%7%29% Communal care in kibbutz Japan68%5%27% Mother & child rarely separated

Cross-cultural Research Many studies have limited samples Cannot claim to be representative of each culture E.g. in Israel kibbutz vs. urban Probably more variation within cultures than between them

Cross-cultural Research Reliable findings Grossman & Grossman (1991) - high proportion of ‘avoidant’ children in Germany Takahashi (1990) - 32% of children resistant; none avoidant From US/UK point of view such findings might seem alarming

Cross-cultural Research Important not to judge other cultures from our own perspective Japan – children rarely separated from mother – find SSC very stressful ‘Avoidant’ behaviour very rude – actively discouraged Germany – greater personal distance is the norm; proximity seeking not encouraged

Cross-cultural Variation Findings suggest attachment has some universal features There is variation both between and within cultures SSC may not be best tool for cross- cultural research as it assumes behaviour always has same significance as in US/UK