Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach Chapter 8

North American Gray Wolf Reduced to a few hundred Keystone species Restoration proposal angered ranchers, hungers, loggers 1995, reintroduced in Yellowstone, 136 by 2007 Positive ripple effect after reintroduction

8-1 How Are We Affecting the Earth’s Biodiversity and Why Should We Protect It? Concept 8-1A We are degrading and destroying biodiversity in many parts of the world and these threats are increasing. Concept 8-1B We should protect biodiversity because it exists and because of its usefulness to us and other species.

Loss of Biodiversity Earth’s biodiversity depleted and degraded Wetlands, grasslands & forests 83% land surface disturbed Antarctica & Greenland

Loss of Biodiversity Degradation of aquatic biodiversity 50% wetlands (globally) 15-35% coral reefs destroyed and damaged Ecological fishprint unsustainable 200 commercially valuable fish overfished or at their sustainable yield 29% collapsed, w/90% in decline Need >2.5x current ocean area Japan, Indonesia and China

Lake Victoria Lake Victoria has lost their endemic fish species to large introduced predatory fish.

Lake Victoria Reasons for loss of biodiversity: Introduction of Nile perch. Algal blooms from nutrient runoff. Invasion of water hyacinth has blocked sunlight and deprived oxygen. Nile perch is in decline because it has eaten its own food supply.

Why Protect Biodiversity Intrinsic value Value regardless of use to us Instrumental value Use Value: Usefulness in terms of economic and ecological services. (farms, crops, fisheries) Nonuse values Existence Aesthetic Bequest

Endangered Orangutans

8-2 Managing and Sustaining Forests Concept 8-2 We can sustain forests by recognizing the economic value of their ecological services, protecting old-growth forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and making most paper from fast-growing plants and agricultural residues instead of trees.

Forest Services Forests 30% of earth’s land surface – mostly in the mountains

Types of Forests Old-growth forests Second-growth forests (primary, ancient, primeval, frontier) diverse 150-500+ yrs old 22% of forests Second-growth forests Secondary succession Tree plantation Managed, uniform, clear cut, economical, depletes nutrients

Short Rotation Cycle Forestry

Loss of Original Forests DEFORESTATION – temporary & permanent 46% in 8,000 years, most since 1950 Most in tropical areas, developing countries Crops and cattle Latin America, Indonesia, Africa Estimated loss of 40% intact forests within next 20 years Clearing is exponential (0.3-0.8%)

Video: U.S. Forests Videos/US_Forests.mov

Fragmentation, destruction, and degradation. Roads and Forests Fragmentation, destruction, and degradation.

Natural Capital Degradation: Deforestation Fig. 8-6, p. 155

Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services The long-term health of an economy cannot be separated from the health of the natural systems that support it. Estimated value of earth’s ecological services $33.2 trillion per year $4.7 trillion per year for forests What services do we need to start factoring into land use?

Most due to tree plantations Good News on Forests 2000–2005 net total forested area stabilized or increased N. America, Europe, India, China, Turkey & Vietnam Most due to tree plantations Some secondary succession (cropland & cleared forests) BENEFIT Wood needs, decreased erosion & nutrient loss, CO2 LOSS Decreased biodiversity & nutrients

Return of Forests in the United States U.S. forests Cover ~30% of land Contain ~80% of wildlife species Supply ~67% of nation’s surface water Forest cover greater now than in 1920 Secondary succession

Return of Forests in the United States Second- and third-growth forests fairly diverse More wood grown than cut annually 40% of forests in National Forest System 155 National Forests LOSS: transformed into tree plantations Julia Hill – “Butterfly” – two years on a platform of California redwood tree

Controversy over the National Forests Forest service mandate Principle of sustainable yield Harvest at replenishing rate Principle of multiple use Recreation, hunting & fishing in forests = 10x timber revenue Timber companies push for tree cutting to be primary goal Subsidized by taxpayers money Timber sales have lost money 97 out of last 100 yrs (cost of roads, timber prep, admin, etc)

Harvest Methods Step one – build roads Step two – logging operations Erosion Invasive species Open up for human invasion DISQUALIFY LAND FOR PROTECTION AS WILDERNESS Step two – logging operations Selective cutting Strip cutting Clear cutting

Forest Harvesting Methods

Clear-cut Logging Fig. 8-9, p. 157

Trade-offs: Clear-cutting Forests Fig. 8-10, p. 157

Forests and Fires Surface fires Crown fires Burn undergrowth only Cool fire Ecological benefits – remove flammables, release minerals & seeds (lodgepole), stimulate germination (sequoia/jack pine), control pathogens, post-fire food (deer, moose, elk, quail, etc) Crown fires Burn the entire tree, hot fire Occur in forests with lack of surface fires (buildup) Flames leap, are rapid, destructive, kill & erode

Management of Forest Fires Fire suppression in all types of forests Smokey Bear Some forests naturally fire adapted Not all fires are bad Prescribed fires Native Americans

Management of Forest Fires Restoration of fire’s natural role: Allow fires to burn 60 m buffer zone around homes (thinning) Healthy Forests Restoration Act, 2003 Allows timber companies to cut med-large trees in return for clearing Exempts thinning projects from environmental review Paid for by taxpayers – may increase damage

Forest Fires Forest fires have increased – past 15 yrs Drying from climate change Increases climate change

Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber Forest Steward Council certification of forest operations Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) Environmentally sound practices Sustainable yield harvest Minimal erosion from operations Retention of dead wood for wildlife habitat Steward of land and water 2005 – only 6% certified Sweden, Poland, US, Canada

Solutions: Sustainable Forestry Fig. 8-12, p. 159

Trees and Paper Many trees are cut for paper production Alternatives Pulp from rice straw and agricultural residues (China) Kenaf (U.S.) More paper pulp/land area Require fewer pesticides and herbicides http://www.environmentalpaper.org/PAPER-statistics.html

How Serious Is Tropical Deforestation and How Can It Be Reduced? Concept 8-3 We can reduce tropical deforestation by protecting large forest areas, teaching settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry, using government subsidies that encourage sustainable forest use, reducing poverty, and slowing population growth.

Tropical Forests Cover 6% of earth’s land area (size of US) Lost 50% since 1950 Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants and animals Diversity increases pole to equator Vulnerable to extinction – specialized niches Rapid loss of 50,000–170,000 km2 per year Imazon (2004) - land occupation/deforestation = 47%

Burning of a Tropical Forest Accounts for ¾ greenhouse gas emissions. Fig. 8-14, p. 160

Destruction of Tropical Forests

Causes of Tropical Forest Deforestation and Degradation Population growth and poverty Subsistence farming & poor search for land Government subsidies Reducing cost of harvest and grazing Gov. gives title to land-clearers to reduce poverty but don’t teach sustainability (Ind, Mex, Brazil) International lending agencies encourage development Roads, soybeans, coffee, mines, logging, oil, dams Africa, Latin America

Effects of Tropical Deforestation Fragmentation of remaining patches Roads, erosion, toppling Remaining forests get drier and may burn Degrades biodiversity CO2 to the atmosphere Accelerates climate change Converts forest to savannah

Animation: Effects of Deforestation Animations/effects_deforestation.html

How to Protect Tropical Forests Teach settlers to practice small-scale sustainable agriculture Harvest renewable resources from the forests Debt-for-nature swaps Foreign aid & debt relief to be stewards Conservation concessions Gov & NPOs give $ Gentler logging methods

Solutions: Sustaining Tropical Forests Fig. 8-16, p. 162

Wangari Maathai and Kenya’s Green Belt Movement Backyard small tree nursery Organized poor women Women paid for each surviving seedling planted Breaks cycle of poverty Reduces environmental degradation People walk less distance to get fuelwood Sparked projects in 30+ African countries

How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands? Concept 8-4 We can sustain the productivity of rangeland by controlling the number and distribution of livestock and by restoring degraded rangeland.

Grasslands Ecological services Soil formation, erosion control, nutrient cycling, carbon storage, maintaining biodiversity Second most used and altered ecosystem by humans Rangeland - unfenced (temperate/tropical) forage land 42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and goats Pasture – fenced, managed, sometimes planted Grow from the bottom – tops dispensable

Grasslands

Grasslands Overgrazing – over carrying capacity Erosion/compaction, Invasives (sagebrush, mesquite, cactus, cheatgrass and salt cedar) loss of productivity

Video: Desertification in China Videos/Desertification_in_China.mov

Manage Rangelands Sustainably Practice rotational grazing Move fences and confine animals Fence out riparian zone areas

Manage Rangelands Sustainably Suppress invader plants Expensive – herbicides, uproot, trample Replant barren soil with seeds Expensive – seeds and fertilizer Employ controlled burns to control exotic vegetation

San Pedro River Rangelands

8-5 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves? Concept 8-5 Sustaining biodiversity will require protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area, starting with the most endangered biodiversity hot spots.

National Parks >1,100 national parks in 120 countries Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected

Problems Protecting National Parks Local people invade parks to survive Illegal logging & mining Wildlife poaching Most parks too small to protect large animals Result in invasion of nonnative species

Stresses on U.S. National Parks System Est. 1912 by Congress Biggest problem popularity Damage from nonnative species Threatened islands of biodiversity

Nature Reserves Occupy a Fraction of Earth 12% of earth’s land protected Only 5% fully protected (places we don’t want to live) – 95% reserved for human use Need for conservation Minimum 20% of land in biodiversity reserves – multiple examples of all biomes

Solutions for Protection Requires action – bottom-up political pressure We, the people Nature Conservancy – world’s largest private system of reserves Maintained by private, local citizens Opposed by those who say areas contain valuable resources Buffer zone Concept U.N. Biosphere Reserves (425) – underfunded/staffed Locals to manage reserves and buffer zones

Model Biosphere Reserve Fig. 8-20, p. 167

Solutions: National Parks Fig. 8-19, p. 166

Case Study: Costa Rica Superpower of biodiversity More bird species than all North America Government eliminated deforestation subsidies Paid landowners to maintain/restore tree coverage Goal to make sustainable forestry profitable Has gone from highest to lowest deforestation

Costa Rica’s Megareserve Network Conserved 25% of its land, 8 megareserves Fig. 8-21, p. 167

Protecting Wilderness Protects Biodiversity Wilderness – land legally set aside/undeveloped US Wilderness Society - Minimum size >4,000 km2 Otherwise impacted by air, noise, water pollution Preserves natural capital Centers for evolution CRITICS: we cannot use it for its economic value

STEPS: FWS - NPS

STEPS: USFS

Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the U.S. 1964 Wilderness Act National Wilderness Preservation System Increased wilderness 10-fold (1970-2000), ¾ in Alaska, 98% of lower 48 unprotected Only 4 of 413 wilderness areas >4,000 sq km, 81 of 233 distinct ecosystems Roadless Rule protects 400,000 sq. miles Pressure from oil, gas, mining, and logging 2005 Secretary of Interior removed protection & disqualified cow paths and off-road vehicle trails

Global Biodiversity Hotspots 17 megadiversity countries in tropics and subtropics Indonesia, Colombia, Mexico, Brazil, Ecuador Two-thirds of biodiversity Biodiversity hotspots – economically poor/diversity rich Animations/hotspots.html

Biodiversity Hotspots in the U.S. Fig. 8-23, p. 169

8-6 Restoration Ecology Concept 8-6 Sustaining biodiversity will require a global effort to rehabilitate and restore damaged ecosystems.

Ecological Restoration Ecological Restoration – repairing the damage Replanting, reclaiming urban (brownfields), restoring wetlands, reintroducing natives/removing invasives & dams effective if GLOBAL & mostly natural (secondary succession) Restoration – return to similar state Rehabilitation – return to functional/useful, not necessarily natural Replacement – for another ecosystem Creating artificial ecosystems – e.g. wetlands

Science-based Principles for Restoration Identify cause of degradation Pollution, overgrazing, invasives Stop abuse by reducing factors Remove soil, invasives, cut down on grazing Reintroduce species if necessary Pioneer, keystone, foundation Protect area from further degradation

Case Study: Ecological Restoration of Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica One of world’s largest ecological restoration projects Restore a degraded tropical dry forest and reconnect it to adjacent forests Involve 40,000 people in the surrounding area – biocultural restoration Ecotourism

Will Restoration Encourage Further Degradation? It’s cheaper to protect than to restore Does environmental restoration suggest any harm can be undone? Scientists disagree Restoration badly needed Altered restored site better than no restoration

What Can You Do? Fig. 8-24, p. 171

8-7 How Can We Help Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity? Concept 8-7 We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

Three Patterns of Aquatic Biodiversity Relatively little known about the ocean and freshwater systems Greatest biodiversity in coral reefs, estuaries, and deep-ocean floor Higher near the coast than in open sea Higher in the bottom region of ocean than in surface layer More diverse habitats & food sources

Human Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems Ecological Services $1.7 trillion/yr $3.2 million/minute Human activities Ocean floor degradation 150x larger than area clear-cut annually 75% of most valuable fish species overfished IUCN - Likely extinction within our lifetime (more than any other group of species) 34% marine fish species 71% freshwater species

Effects of Bottom Trawling 2004- Scientists attempted high-seas bottom trawling moratorium Iceland, Russia, China & S. Korea blocked it Fig. 8-25, p. 172

Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult? Human aquatic ecological footprint expanding Not visible to most people Viewed as an inexhaustible resource

Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult? Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction of a country

Solutions for Marine Ecosystems Protect endangered and threatened species ESA, MMPA, MBTA, The Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, the Wild Bird Conservation Act CITES, International Convention on the Regulation of Whales, and the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region Establish protected marine sanctuaries Since 1986, IUCN has established 1,300 global MPAs Marine reserves – work well and quickly Pops double, reproduction triples, adult size grows, diversity increases by 25% Integrated coastal management Protect existing coastal wetlands

Solutions: Managing Fisheries Fig. 8-26, p. 173

8-8 Priorities for Protecting Biodiversity Map terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity Immediately preserve biodiversity hotspots Keep old-growth forests intact Protect and restore lakes and rivers Initiate ecological restoration Make conservation profitable