Sociological Research Methods and Techniques

Sociological Research Topics Sociologists: – Study the influence that society has on people’s attitudes and behavior – Seek to understand ways in which people interact and shape society

True or False? Social factors have no effect on suicide When a number of people observe an emergency, they are more likely to go to the aid of the victim than when only one person is a witness Religious beliefs are less important to Americans than to Europeans

All are false! All of these commonsense statements have been contradicted by careful research Durkeim (1897) presented evidence that social integration strongly affects the rate of suicide among different social groups When witnessing an emergency, a single individual has been found more likely than several people together to help the victim, perhaps because they are the only one who can do so 56% of Americans say religion is very important, compared to 36% of Italians and Scandinavians

Sociology and Common Sense Sociologists do not accept something as fact because “everyone knows it” Findings are tested by researchers, analyzed in relation to other data, and evaluated with sociological theory

What Good Is Sociological Theory? Theory: set of statements that seeks to explain problems, actions, or behavior Effective theories have explanatory and predictive power

Sociology and Science ● Sociology is a type of science, a logical system that bases knowledge on direct, systematic observation. - Scientific sociology is the study of society based on systematic observation of social behavior. - Scientific knowledge is based on empirical evidence, information we can verify with our data, not common sense. ● Scientific evidence sometimes contradicts common sense explanations of social behavior.

Limitations of Scientific Sociology ● Human behavior is too complex to allow sociologists to predict precisely any individual’s actions. Because humans respond to their surroundings, the mere presence of a researcher may affect the behavior being studied. ● Social patterns change; what is true in one time or place may not hold true in another. Sociologists look for patterns within society. They predict and explain general patterns. Still, there are always exceptions to general sociological trends.

What is the purpose of research? ● Max Weber, argued that the focus of sociology is interpretation. It is not just to observe what people do but to share in their world of meaning and come to appreciate why they act as they do. ● Karl Marx, who founded critical sociology, rejected the idea that society exists as a “natural” system with a fixed order. The point is not merely to study the world as it is but to change it.

Methods of collecting data Sociologists use the following methods Quantitative (data can be measured numerically): Surveys Experiments Secondary Analysis Qualitative (data is collected through observation, generates descriptive data): Case Study

Survey Research ● A survey is a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements or questions in a questionnaire or an interview. -Surveys are directed at populations, the people who are the focus of research. - Usually we study a sample, a part of a population that represents the whole. Random sampling is commonly used to be sure that the sample is actually representative of the entire population. - Surveys may involve interviews or questionnaires, with open-ended or closed-ended questions Example of open-ended/close-ended questions (To get a good job you have to have a good education 1-strongly agree 4-strongly agree) In your own words, describe your view on the education you have received so far Example of a good random sample

Survey Advantages Disadvantages Answers can be measured and compared Use of statistical techniques to make sense of data Information on large numbers of people Expensive due to large numbers Many people don’t respond Phrasing of questions can influence answers

Examples of Surveys Behavior in hallway Bullying at TMA Cliques Dating practices College plans

Experiments Advantages Disadvantages ● An experiment is a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions. This is not often used in social research Advantages Disadvantages Can be replicated Variables can be manipulated, can control for extraneous (outside variables) Can be inexpensive Can establish causation Environment is artificial Not suited for most sociological research Number of variables studied is limited © 2010 Alan S.Berger

Secondary Analysis Using pre-collected information for data collection and research purposes Examples include: government reports, company records, voting lists, prison records, research done by other social scientists Advantages Disadvantages Inexpensive Can study a topic over a long period of time No influence on subjects Information collected for a different reason and may not suit needs Information may be outdated Original research may have been affected by bias © 2010 Alan S.Berger

Case Study A thorough investigation is done of a small group, incident, or community Advantages Disadvantages Provides a depth of information from a group member’s viewpoint Unexpected discoveries can be incorporated into research Can study social behavior not always feasible with other forms of study Difficult to generalize findings from one group to another group Presence of researcher can influence results Hard to duplicate Takes a lot of time Can see more than just with a survey © 2010 Alan S.Berger

Relationships among variables Cause and effect is a relationship in which change in one variable causes change in another. The independent variable is the variable that causes the change. The dependent variable is the variable that changes. Cause-and-effect relationships allow us to predict how one pattern of behavior will produce another.

Causation vs. Correlation Scientists want to study why an event occurs. They look for causation. There can sometimes be multiple causation--The idea than an event occurs as a result of several factors operating in combination A correlation is simply a measure of how things are related. It exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in another. Correlation does not mean causation.

Correlations Positive correlation: both independent and dependent variable change in the same direction Negative correlation: Variables that change in opposite direction Spurious Correlation: An apparent relationship between variables that is actually caused by a third variable

Spurious Correlation Increased with age Less Church attendance More delinquency Increased with age More delinquency Less Church attendance