Part I: The Sociological Perspective

 Sociology is the scientific study of social structure, examining human social behavior from a group, rather than an individual, perspective. Sociologists focus on the patterns of behavior shared by members of a group or society. The sociological perspective enables us to develop a sociological imagination—the ability to see the relationship between events in our personal lives and events in society. Using our sociological imagination helps us to make our own decisions rather than merely conform, and to question common interpretations of human social behavior.

 Sociology is a relatively young science, beginning in late nineteenth-century Europe during a time of great social upheaval. Intellectuals such as Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, and others began to explore ideas for regaining a sense of community and restoring order. After World War II, however, the greatest development of sociology has taken place in the United States. Two early contributors were activists Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois, who helped focus people's attention on social issues.

 One very important medium for transmitting and teaching culture is language. The hypothesis of linguistic relativity states that our idea of reality depends largely upon language; that is, our perceptions of the world depend in part on the particular language we have learned.

 Sociology includes three major theoretical perspectives. Functionalism focuses on the contributions of each part of society; the conflict perspective looks at conflict, competition, change, and constraint within a society; and symbolic interactionism considers the actual interaction among people. Each of these perspectives provides a different slant on human social behavior, so by considering all three perspectives together we can see most of the important dimensions of human social behavior.

 Like all scientists, sociologists gain their knowledge by doing research; their methods, however, differ from most other scientists. These methods are classified as either quantitative—using numerical data, or qualitative—relying on narrative and descriptive data. Quantitative research is usually conducted through the use of surveys and precollected data, while field research is the method most commonly used in qualitative research.

 Scientists assume that an event occurs for a reason, a concept known as causation, and that all events have causes. When they conduct studies, scientists identify variables to investigate, and look for correlations of how things relate to one another. Three standards are used to determine causal relationships: 1) two variables must be correlated; 2) all other possible factors must be taken into account; and 3) a change in the independent variable must occur before a change in the dependent variable can occur.

 Scientists use a research method known as the scientific method. They identify a problem, formulate a hypothesis, conduct research, collect and analyze data, and state their findings and conclusions. Researchers have an ethical obligation to protect participants' privacy and to avoid deceiving or harming them.

 Culture consists of the knowledge, language, values, customs, and physical objects that are passed from generation to generation among members of a group. It defines how people in a society behave in relation to others and to physical objects. Although among animals most behavior is determined by instincts, human social behavior is learned. Sociobiologists try to find a relationship among heredity, culture, and behavior.

 Norms are rules that define appropriate and inappropriate behavior; folkways, mores, and laws are three basic types of norms found in societies. Norms must be learned and are enforced through sanctions.  Values are general and broad ideas shared by people in a society about what is good or desirable. They have a tremendous influence on human social behavior because they form the basis for norms. In the United States, examples of basic values include equality, democracy, and achievement and success.

 Beliefs are part of the nonmaterial culture. People base their behavior on beliefs, regardless of whether these are true or false.  Material culture consists of concrete objects which gain meaning through the context in which they are placed. Sometimes in a culture, a gap exists between cultural guidelines and actual behavior.  Ideal culture refers to cultural guidelines publicly embraced by member of a society, while real culture refers to actual behavior patterns.

 Cultures change over time according to three major processes — discovery, invention, and diffusion.  Although cultural diversity exists within all societies, people tend to be committed to their culture—a behavior called ethnocentrism.  Some cultural traits called cultural universals can be found in all societies.

 Socialization is the cultural process of learning to participate in group life. It begins at birth and continues throughout life, and without it, we would not develop many of the characteristics we associate with being human.

 All three theoretical perspectives agree that socialization is needed if cultural and societal values are to be learned. Symbolic interactionists, however, have the most extensive interpretation of the relationship between socialization and human nature. They use a number of concepts—the self- concept, the looking-glass self, significant others, role taking, and the generalized other—to explain the processes of socialization.

 Various agents influence the socialization of a person, namely the family, school, peer groups, and mass media. For children, the peer group is the only agent of socialization not controlled primarily by adults.

 Symbolic interactionism views socialization as a lifelong process.  Learning new behaviors and skills is important to socialization, and it occurs through four major processes  Desocialization: unlearning of previous norms and values  Resocialization: learning new norms and values  Anticipatory Socialization: learning to play a role before entering it.  Reference Groups: groups to which an individual compares him/her self, such as family, peers, and the mass media.

 The underlying pattern of social relationships in a group is called social structure, and it helps us to know how to act in various group situations.  The major elements of social structure are statuses and roles. Status describes the position a person occupies in a social structure; it may be ascribed or achieved.

 An expected behavior associated with a particular status is called a role. Roles describe behaviors — rights are behaviors that individuals expect from others, while obligations are behaviors that individuals are expected to perform toward others. Conflict or strain sometimes results when a person has too many roles to play.