Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology and Research Methods

What Is Psychology? Psychology Psyche: Mind Logos: Knowledge or study Definition: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Behavior: Overt; i.e., can be directly observed (crying) Mental Processes: Covert; i.e., cannot be directly observed (remembering); private, internal Empirical Evidence: Information gathered from direct observation

Where would you position psychiatrists on this org. chart? What are the major differences in the duties of psychiatrists vs. psychologists? How are clinicians and experimental psychologists different?

Many Flavors of Psychologists Psychologists: Usually have masters or doctorate. Trained in methods, knowledge, and theories of psychology. Clinical Psychologists: Treat psychological problems or do research on therapies and mental illnesses Counseling Psychologists: Treat milder problems, such as poor adjustment at work or at a school Psychiatrists: MD; usually use medications to treat problems. Generally do not have extensive training in providing “talk” therapy.

Many Flavors of Psychologists (cont’d) Psychoanalysts: Receive additional Freudian psychoanalytic training post-Ph.D. or M.D. at an institute. Counselors: Advisers who help solve problems with marriage, career, school, or work Psychiatric Social Workers: Many have masters degrees and perform psychotherapy. Use social science principles. Presently a very popular profession. Not all psychologists perform therapy! For, example experimental psychologists conduct research and usually teach, too.

What Might a Psychologist Research? Development: Course of human growth and development Learning: How and why it occurs in humans and animals Personality: Traits, motivations, and individual differences Sensation and Perception: How we come to know the world through our five senses

What Might a Psychologist Research?(cont’d) Social: Human and social behavior Cultural: How culture affects human behavior Cognitive: How reasoning, problem solving, and other mental processes relate to human behavior Evolutionary: How our behavior is guided by patterns that evolved during human history

Figure 1.3a FIGURE 1.3 (a) Specialties in psychology. Percentages are approximate. Any particular psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you can see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings.

Figure 1.3b FIGURE 1.3. (b) Where psychologists work. Any particular psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you can see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings.

Figure 1.3c FIGURE 1.3 (c) This chart shows the main activities psychologists do at work. Any particular psychologist might do several of these activities during a work week (APA, 1998). As you can see, most psychologists specialize in applied areas and work in applied settings.

What Are the Goals of Psychology? Description of Behaviors: Naming and classifying various observable, measurable behaviors Understanding: The causes of behavior(s) Prediction: Forecasting behavior accurately Control: Altering conditions that influence behaviors Positive Use: To control unwanted behaviors, (e.g., smoking, tantrums, etc.) Negative Use: To control peoples’ behaviors without their knowledge

History of Psychology (Brief!): Beginnings Wilhelm Wundt: “Father” of Psychology 1879: Set up first lab to study conscious experience Stimulus: Any physical energy that affects the person and provokes a response Introspection: Looking inward (i.e., examining and reporting your thoughts, feelings, etc.) Wundt’s ideas brought to the U.S. by Tichener and renamed Structuralism Question: What are the building blocks of mental experience? Structuralists disagreed, and no way to prove who was correct!

History of Psychology: William James William James (American) and Functionalism Assumed consciousness is an ever-changing flow of images and sensations so… What does the mind do? How the mind functions to help us adapt to our environment? Functionalists admired Darwin and his theory of Natural Selection: Animals keep features through evolution that help them adapt to environments

History of Psychology: Behaviorism and Cognitive Behaviorism Behaviorism: Watson and Skinner Psychology must study observable behavior objectively Watson studied Little Albert with Rosalie Raynor; Skinner studied animals almost exclusively Cognitive: Study thoughts, memory, expectations, perceptions, and other mental processes Cognitive Behaviorism: Ellis and Bandura Our thoughts influence our behaviors; used often in treatment of depression

History of Psychology: Gestalt “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Key names: Wertheimer, Perls

Figure 1.2 FIGURE 1.2 The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles. However, as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful tendency to form meaningful patterns. Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion. Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its parts.

History of Psychology: Freud Psychoanalytic: Freud Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression. Freud performed dream analysis and was an interactionist (combination of our biology and environment make us who we are). Repression: Unconscious thoughts held out of awareness because they are threatening

History of Psychology: Humanism Humanism: Rogers and Maslow Goal of psychology is to study unique aspects of the person; focuses on subjective human experience. Each person has innate goodness and is able to make free choices (contrast with Skinner and Freud). Maslow: Self-actualization: Develop one’s full potential and become the best person you can be

3 Perspectives on Psychology Biological—explains behavior in terms of biological principles (brain processes, evolution, genetics) Psychological—views behavior as a result of psychological processes within each person Sociocultural—what impact do social/cultural contexts have on behavior?

Psychology Today Biopsychology: Our behavior can be explained through physiological processes Uses brain scans to gather data (CT, MRI, PET) Looks at neurotransmitters Treats psychological problems with medications Positive Psychology: Study of human strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior

Cultural Awareness Many thoughts and behaviors are influenced by our culture. Psychologists need to be aware of the impact cultural diversity may have on our behaviors. What is acceptable in one culture might be unacceptable in another.

Table 1.1

Table 1.3

Psychologists Observe & Measure Behavior

Silently choose a number between 2 & 9. Multiply that number by 9. Add the 2 digits of the resulting number. Subtract 5 from that result. Think of the letter of the alphabet that corresponds to the number arrived at in step 4. Write the name of a country that begins with this letter. Write the name of an animal that begins with the last letter of this country. Write the name of a color that begins with the last letter of that animal. Look at & concentrate on the listed country, animal, and color.

The Scientific Method Six Basic Elements Observing Defining a problem Proposing a hypothesis (a specific educated guess that can be tested) Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis Publishing results Building a theory (organizes and generalizes a consistent set of observations)

Some Terms Hypothesis: Testable hunch or educated guess about behavior Operational Definition: States exact procedures used to represent a concept. Allows abstract ideas to be tested in real-world terms.

Figure 1.4 FIGURE 1.4 Operational definitions are used to link concepts with concrete observations. Do you think the examples given are reasonable operational definitions of frustration and aggression? Operational definitions vary in how well they represent concepts. For this reason, many different experiments may be necessary to draw clear conclusions about hypothesized relationships in psychology.

Operational definitions Which of the following might be used as an operational definition of “attraction?” A feeling of affection when two people are together. (1) The number of minutes during which two people are touching each other over a four-hour period. (2) (2)

Experiments To identify cause-and-effect relationships, we conduct experiments. A formal trial to confirm/disconfirm a hypothesis Directly vary a condition you might think affects behavior. Create two or more groups of subjects, alike in all ways except the condition you are varying. Record whether varying the condition has any effect on behavior.

Experiment Types Single Blind: Only the subjects have no idea whether they are in the experimental or control group Double Blind: The subjects AND the experimenters have no idea whether the subjects are in the control or experimental group Best type of experiment if properly set up

What is a double-blind study?

Naturalistic Observation Observing a person or an animal in the environment in which they/it live(s) Problems Observer Effect: Changes in a subject’s behavior caused by an awareness of being observed Observer Bias: Occurs when observers see what they expect to see or record only selected details Anthropomorphic Error: Attributing human thoughts, feelings, or motives to animals, especially as a way of explaining their behavior (e.g., “Anya my cat is acting like that because she’s feeling depressed today.”)

Figure 1.5 FIGURE 1.5 Psychologists use the logic of science to answer questions about behavior. Specific hypotheses can be tested in a variety of ways, including naturalistic observation, correlational studies, controlled experiments, clinical studies, and the survey method. Psychologists revise their theories to reflect the evidence they gather. New or revised theories then lead to new observations, problems, and hypotheses.

Correlations and Relationships Definition: Existence of a consistent, systematic relationship between two events, measures, or variables. Coefficient of Correlation: Statistic ranging from –1.00 to +1.00; the sign indicates the direction of the relationship. Closer the statistic is to –1.00 or to +1.00, the stronger the relationship. Correlation of 0.00 demonstrates no relationship between the variables.

Correlations and Relationships (cont’d) Positive Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by increases in the other variable. Negative Correlation: Increases in one variable are matched by decreases in the other variable. Correlation does not demonstrate causation: Just because two variables are related does NOT mean that one variable causes the other to occur.

Figure 1.7 FIGURE 1.7 The correlation coefficient tells how strongly two measures are related. These graphs show a range of relationships between two measures, A and B. If a correlation is negative, increases in one measure are associated with decreases in the other. (As B gets larger, A gets smaller.) In a positive correlation, increases in one measure are associated with increases in the other. (As B gets larger, A gets larger.) The center-left graph (“medium negative relationship”) might result from comparing anxiety level (B) with test scores (A): Higher anxiety is associated with lower scores. The center graph (“no relationship”) would result from plotting a person’s shoe size (B) and his or her IQ (A). The center-right graph (“medium positive relationship”) could be a plot of grades in high school (B) and grades in college (A) for a group of students: Higher grades in high school are associated with higher grades in college.

Figure 1.1 FIGURE 1.1 Results of an empirical study. The graph shows that horn honking by frustrated motorists becomes more likely as air temperature increases. This suggests that physical discomfort is associated with interpersonal hostility. (Data from Kenrick & MacFarlane, 1986.)

Variables Definition: Any condition that can change and that might affect the outcome of an experiment Independent Variable: Condition(s) altered by the experimenter; experimenter sets their size, amount, or value. These are suspected causes for behavioral differences. Dependent Variable: Demonstrates results of the experiment. Condition is affected by independent variable. Extraneous Variables: Conditions that a researcher wants to prevent from affecting the outcomes of the experiment (e.g., number of hours slept before the experiment).

Figure 1.8 FIGURE 1.8 Elements of a simple psychological experiment to assess the effects of music during study on test scores.

Groups Experimental Group: The group of subjects that gets the independent variable. Control Group: The group of subjects that does NOT get the independent variable. Random Assignment: Subject has an equal chance of being in either the experimental or control group.

Figure 1.9 FIGURE 1.9 Experimental control is achieved by balancing extraneous variables for the experimental group and the control group. For example, the average age (A), education (B), and intelligence (C) of group members could be made the same for both groups. Then we could apply the independent variable to the experimental group. If their behavior (the dependent variable) changes (in comparison with the control group), the change must be caused by the independent variable.

Placebo Effects Definition: A fake pill (sugar) or injection (saline) Placebo Effect: Changes in behavior that result from expectations that a drug or other treatment will have some effect; the belief that one has taken an active drug

Experimenter Effects Definition: Changes in behavior caused by the unintended influence of the experimenter Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A prediction that leads people to act in ways to make the prediction come true

The Clinical Method Case Study: In-depth focus of all aspects of a single subject Natural Clinical Tests: Natural events, such as accidents, that provide psychological data

Figure 1.10 FIGURE 1.10 Some of the earliest information on the effects of damage to frontal areas of the brain came from a case study of the accidental injury of Phineas Gage.

The Survey Method Definition: Using public polling techniques to answer psychological questions Representative Sample: Small group that accurately reflects a larger population Population: Entire group of animals or people belonging to a particular category (e.g., all married women) Courtesy Bias: Problem in research; a tendency to give “polite” or socially desirable answers

Figure 1.11 FIGURE 1.11 If you were conducting a survey in which a person’s height might be an important variable, the non-random sample would be very unrepresentative. The random sample, selected using a table of random numbers, better represents the group as a whole.

Critical Thinking Ability to analyze, evaluate, compare, critique, and synthesize information Based on four principles Few truths transcend the need for empirical testing Judging the quality of evidence is crucial Authority or claimed expertise does not automatically make an idea true Critical thinking requires an open mind

How to Critically Evaluate New Information Ask the following: What claims are being made? What test (if any) of these claims has been made? Who did the test; how good is the evidence? What was the nature and quality of the tests? Are they credible and can they be repeated? How reliable and trustworthy were the investigators? How much credibility can the claim be given? Have alternative explanations been ruled out?

Pseudo-Psychologies Pseudo means “false.” Any unfounded “system” that resembles psychology and is NOT based on scientific testing Palmistry: Lines on your hands (palms) predict future and reveal personality Phrenology: Personality traits revealed by shape of skull and bumps on your head Graphology: Personality revealed by your handwriting. Astrology: The positions of the stars and planets at birth determine your personality and affect your behavior. Extremely popular today (“What’s your sign?”).

Why are there so many believers? Uncritical Acceptance: Tendency to believe positive or flattering descriptions of yourself Fallacy of Positive Instances: When we remember or notice things that confirm our expectations and forget the rest. Barnum Effect: Always have a little something for everyone. Make sure all palm readings, horoscopes, etc. are so general that something in them will always apply to any one person! (e.g., “Crossing Over with John Edward”)

Separating Fact from Fiction Be skeptical. Consider the source of information. Ask yourself, “Was there a control group?” Look for errors in distinguishing between correlation and causation (are claims based on correlational results yet passed off as causations?).

Separating Fact from Fiction (cont’d) Be sure to distinguish between observation and inference (e.g., Robert is crying, but do we know why he is crying?). Beware of oversimplifications, especially those motivated by monetary reasons. “For example” is no proof, i.e., one example is not proof