Looking forward: Linking development and research to achieve real improvement in science education Robin Millar

… respondents were concerned that pupils found science and mathematics courses hard, that they were not enthused by the content of the science curriculum nor by the way it was taught, and that they could not relate the issues they studied in science to the world around them. All these issues … were seen to result in declining numbers taking mathematics, physics and chemistry at A-level and beyond. (p. 32)

A-level physics numbers

Students’ Views (n=1227) Strongly disagree % Disagree % Agree % Strongly agree % I like school science better than other subjects I would like to become a scientist I would like to get a job in technology Jenkins, E., & Nelson, N. W. (2005). Important but not for me: Students' attitudes toward secondary school science in England. Research in Science & Technological Education, 23(1),

ROSE Project: The Relevance of Science Education  An international and cross- cultural comparative project on young peoples’ views and perceptions, attitudes, values, interests, plans and priorities – in relation to science and technology Svein Sjøberg, University of Oslo

I like school science better than most other school subjects In most industrialized countries, science is less popular than other subjects

I would like to become a scientist

Science attainment and attitude (from TIMSS, 1999) Average science score % of students (age 14) with high PATS (positive attitude towards science)

What students say  A lot of the stuff is irrelevant. You’re just going to go away from school and you’re never going to think about it again.  It doesn’t mean anything to me. I’m never going to use that. It’s never going to come into anything, it’s just boring.  In art and drama you can choose, like whether you’re going to do it this way or that way, and how you’re going to go about it, whereas in science there’s just one way.  It’s all crammed in … You catch bits of it, then it gets confusing, then you put the wrong bits together … [From: Osborne, J. and Collins, S. (2000). Pupils’ and Parents’ Views of the School Science Curriculum. London: King’s College.]

 What should we teach?  How can we teach more effectively the things we choose to teach?

What should we teach?  What is school science education for?  What is the role of science within the whole curriculum?  Why teach science?

Why teach science? 1.To maintain and develop the kind of society we value, we need people with science qualifications (the economic argument)

… the Industrial Exhibition in Paris... furnished evidence of a decline in the superiority of certain branches of English manufacture over those of other nations... [The opinion that] this decline was partly due to a want of technical education … was general. (Taunton Commission, 1867)

“Research and development (R&D) is widely recognised to be one of the most important factors in the innovation process. Numerous studies have shown a direct link between investment in R&D and future improvements in productivity.” (p. 19)

Why teach science? 1.To maintain and develop the kind of society we value, we need people with science qualifications (the economic argument) 2.It is practically useful to have some scientific knowledge (the utility argument)

Why teach science? 1.To maintain and develop the kind of society we value, we need people with science qualifications (the economic argument) 2.It is practically useful to have some scientific knowledge (the utility argument) 3.Everyone needs some scientific knowledge to participate fully in important decisions that society has to take (the democratic argument)

European Commission (1995). White Paper on Education and Training Democracy functions by majority decision on major issues which, because of their complexity, require an increasing amount of background knowledge. … At the moment, decisions in this area are all too often based on subjective and emotional criteria, the majority lacking the general knowledge to make an informed choice. Clearly this does not mean turning everyone into a scientific expert, but enabling them to fulfil an enlightened role in making choices which affect their environment and to understand in broad terms the social implications of debates between experts. (pp )

Why teach science? 1.To maintain and develop the kind of society we value, we need people with science qualifications (the economic argument) 2.It is practically useful to have some scientific knowledge (the utility argument) 3.Everyone needs some scientific knowledge to participate fully in important decisions that society has to take (the democratic argument) 4.Science is a central element of our culture and should be passed on in some form to all young people (the cultural argument)

Why teach science? 1.To maintain and develop the kind of society we value, we need people with science qualifications (the economic argument) 2.It is practically useful to have some scientific knowledge (the utility argument) 3.Everyone needs some scientific knowledge to participate fully in important decisions that society has to take (the democratic argument) 4.Science is a central element of our culture and should be passed on in some form to all young people (the cultural argument)

So what should we teach?

 The school science curriculum has to do two jobs. A central tension Develop the scientific literacy Provide the first stages of a training in science of all students for some students  It has to : These require different approaches. No single course can hope to do both jobs well.

The most fundamental error in the traditional GCE/A level system was that each stage was designed to be suited to those who were going on to the next. … The other view, which seems to be held in every other advanced country, is that each stage of education should be designed for the main body of those who take it. Department of Education and Science and Welsh Office (1988). Advancing A Levels (Higginson Report), para. 8. London: HMSO.

Beyond 2000 report  “The science curriculum from 5 to 16 should be seen primarily as a course to enhance general ‘scientific literacy’.”

A training in science  an induction into a particular way of seeing the world  tacit, rather than explicit, understanding of the nature of the subject, and its characteristic ways of reasoning  immersion in current ‘paradigms’  ‘accepted examples of actual scientific practice’  extensive practice in using these

‘ it is romantic nonsense to imagine that potential science specialists can learn all the science they need without a lot of routine learning and practice along with indoctrination into traditional ways of thinking.’ (Collins, H. (2000). Studies in Science Education, 35, 171).

What students say .. [In science], there’s one answer and you’ve got to learn it. ….. You just have to accept the facts, don’t you?….. It’s just not as creative as English.  In art and drama you can choose, like whether you’re going to do it this way or that way, and how you’re going to go about it, whereas in science there’s just one way  A lot of the stuff is irrelevant. You’re just going to go away from school and you’re never going to think about it again.  It doesn’t mean anything to me. I’m never going to use that. It’s never going to come into anything, it’s just boring. [From: Osborne, J. and Collins, S. (2000). Pupils’ and Parents’ Views of the School Science Curriculum. ]

Beyond 2000 report  “The science curriculum from 5 to 16 should be seen primarily as a course to enhance general ‘scientific literacy’.”  How can we achieve this, whilst also catering for the needs of those who may want to go on to further study?

Testing a possible solution  A more flexible model for KS4 science  Commissioned by QCA in 2000  Piloted in 78 schools from 2003  First cohort received GCSE grades summer 2005

The Twenty First Century Science model GCSE Science 10% curriculum time Emphasis on scientific literacy for all students (1 GCSE) GCSE Additional Science 10% curriculum time or GCSE Additional Applied Science 10% curriculum time for many students (1 GCSE)

An emphasis on scientific literacy  What would this mean in practice?

Scientific literacy  a ‘toolkit’ of ideas and skills that are useful for accessing, interpreting and responding to science, as we encounter it in everyday life

A key difference Scientists – producers of scientific knowledge All of us – consumers of scientific knowledge

Content selection criteria 1.Scientific knowledge that is practically useful. 2.Scientific knowledge that enables you to participate more fully in important decisions that society has to take. 3.Scientific knowledge that is culturally significant, and shapes our view of who and where we are.

What science do we meet everyday?

What do you need to deal with this?  Some understanding of major scientific ideas and explanations  Some understanding of science itself:  the methods of scientific enquiry  the nature of scientific knowledge  how science and society inter-relate

Science Explanations  The ‘big ideas’ of science  Tools for thinking  What matters is a broad grasp of major ideas and explanations, not disconnected details  For example:  The idea of a ‘chemical reaction’: rearrangement of atoms; nothing created or destroyed  The ‘radiation model’ of interactions at a distance  The gene theory of inheritance  The idea of evolution by natural selection

Ideas about Science  The uncertainty of all data: how to assess it and deal with it  How to evaluate evidence of correlations and causes  The different kinds of knowledge that science produces (ranging from agreed ‘facts’ to more tentative explanations)  How the scientific community works: peer review  How to assess levels of risk, and weigh up risks and benefits  How individuals and society decide about applications of science

Teaching is through issues and contexts; but ‘durable’ learning is of Science Explanations and Ideas about Science. GCSE Science: Modules on topics of interest to students With clear links to science that you meet in out-of-school contexts Providing opportunities to consider ‘how we know’, ‘how sure we can be’, and to discuss and reflect on issues Ideas about Science (How science works) Science Explanations (Breadth of study) Putting it all together

The Twenty First Century Science pilot  A feasibility study  Can such a course be designed?  Will it look feasible to potential users?  Will it be attractive to users?  Can it be implemented?  Can it be assessed?  How well will it work?

How have students responded?  Most pupils are enthused about [the course] and its … up to date approach and take more interest.  More interest, especially in science issues, and will often comment on stories in the media. Engagement real, as opposed to often tacit with traditional courses.  [Students’ interest is] greater because of what’s happening in the news now.

Students’ responseNumber of teachers Much better6 Better21 Same7 Worse5 Teachers’ views of their students’ response after first year of pilot (n=40)

What is different?  Far more group work and emphasis on views of students. More discussion work done. Students are generally more interested in science as they can see the relevance.  Teaching styles adopted are more inclusive, focus is on where science impacts human activity, and not study of topics isolated from students’ experience.  Pupils are required to think now rather than regurgitating facts. Pupil and teacher motivation has increased significantly.

Comments from one pilot school science department  “Pupils can now see the relevance of what they are learning.”  “There is now a buzz in the classroom - the pupils love it.”  “This is the type of science that I have always wanted to teach.”  “It has renewed my enthusiasm for teaching science.”

 What should we teach?  How can we teach more effectively the things we choose to teach?

 What should we teach?  How can we teach more effectively the things we choose to teach?

Research Network: Towards Evidence-based Practice in Science Education Robin Millar (York) John Leach (Leeds) Jonathan Osborne (King’s College London) Mary Ratcliffe (Southampton)

Evidence-based Practice in Science Education (EPSE) Project 1: Using diagnostic assessment to enhance teaching and learning

How to increase the influence of research on practice  improve communication of research findings to teachers (and other users) provide teachers with research instruments, so they can collect better data on their own practice, and make changes in the light of this. Usual approach: Alternative approach:

What we did  worked with a group of teachers;  developed banks of diagnostic questions for three science topics, for pupils aged 9- 16;  used questions developed by researchers as a starting point where possible;  wrote new ones where necessary;  tested and improved questions, and reworked them into forms that could be more readily used in teaching.

Research study: effects on practice  gave each teacher a bank of diagnostic questions on one science topic,  to use as they wished in their teaching;  monitored how they used them, and the effects of this. 23 teachers involved, in 10 schools

Stimulating discussion T4: … so much of what is generated from this is discussion with the pupils, which is what these have prompted a great deal, which wouldn’t have been there without them.... It’s prompted more discussions than I would normally have had … which is good.

Starting points for discussion T10: … that’s a very useful feature of them, the fact that they give alternatives, so the kids aren’t thinking in a vacuum. They … have a starting point T13: It made a lot more openings for discussion … The children had … lots of ideas in front of them … And then they can bring in their own.

Sustained discussion T10: … question 5, about the motion of a football, proved to be a real problem for them. … the question as to whether or not there was a forward force provoked a heated debate. What I got - from one EPSE question - was an entire lesson with pupils fully engaged and making real progress with their thinking.

Across the ability range T10: With the upper sets I expected them to want to talk about these things.. But the bottom, that Set 5, were talking about it just as well … listening to each other, the actually talked about things, I thought, very well.

Changing teaching T9: Oh it has [influenced my teaching], without question, in a beneficial way. I mean if I was the sort of teacher that was always prompting discussion then it probably wouldn’t have been a necessity, I wouldn’t have needed that. But I did need that and it’s helped, without question it’s helped. I’m having more discussions in class than previously, which is a good thing.

Working outside your specialist subject T15: I've taken an approach with this that has been much more the approach that I would take with chemistry … much more open, you know, rather than me just giving information and working through things, a much more sort of interactive, discursive approach, which is a style of teaching I prefer. I think it's a better way of going about things, but perhaps I haven't been as confident in physics before to risk it.

Conclusions  Carefully designed teaching materials can stimulate specific changes in practice  Resources have impact when they enable teachers to make changes they want to make  Many students are interested in ideas, even when they have no obvious use

How can we teach more effectively the things we choose to teach?  Being clear about learning outcomes  and about how to recognise learning  Recognising the critical importance of dialogue in coming to an understanding of ideas

Research and practice  To have impact, research findings need to be reworked in the form of teaching materials or practical guidelines  Innovations must be practical, and consistent with what teachers ‘already know’  Development matters  as part of an R&D (or D&R) cycle  to work out the practical implications of research findings and insights  to enable research-informed ideas and approaches to be tested and evaluated