Control of Plant Growth and Development (식물 생장과 발육 조절)

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Presentation transcript:

Control of Plant Growth and Development (식물 생장과 발육 조절) Chapter 35

환경에 대한 식물의 반응의 예, 햇빛의 방향을 향하고 있는 해바라기들(Helianthus).

Why It Matters Gibberellin and rice 그림 35.1. 벼(Oryza)의 줄기생장에 대한 호르몬 지베렐린의 효과.

35.1 Plant Hormones Auxins promote growth Gibberellins also stimulate growth, including the elongation of stems Cytokinins enhance growth and retard aging Ethylene regulates a range of responses, including senescence

35.1 (cont.) Brassinosteroids regulate plant growth responses Abscisic acid suppresses growth and influences responses to environmental stress Jasmonates and oligosaccharins regulate growth and have roles in defense

Auxins(옥신) Mainly indole acetic acid (IAA) Synthesized primarily in shoot apical meristem and young stems and leaves Promote elongation of cells in coleoptiles and stems

그림 35.2. 굴광성에 대한 다윈의 실험들.

그림 35.3. 귀리 자엽초에서의 IAA의 효과를 보여주는 벤트(Went)의 두 가지 실험.

Auxin Effects on Stem and Root 그림 35.4. 치자나무(Gardenia) 절지에 대한 옥신 처리의 효과.

그림 35.5. 식물 조직에서의 옥신의 극성 이동에 대한 연구의 실험적 증거. Polar transport from tip to base 그림 35.5. 식물 조직에서의 옥신의 극성 이동에 대한 연구의 실험적 증거.

__ AUX1 ___ 산성 pH 그림 35.6. 옥신의 극성 이동에 관한 모델.

Cell Expansion Acid-growth hypothesis(산성생장설) 그림 35.7. 옥신이 식물세포의 생장을 조절하는 방법.

Gibberellins(지베렐린) GA1 is most common Synthesized in shoot and root tips Promote stem elongation, help seeds and buds break dormancy(휴면타파)

Effects of Gibberellin Bolting and fruit enlargement 그림 35.8. 겨울 채소인 양배추에서의 추대형성. 그림 35.9. 씨 없는 포도에 대한 지베렐린의 효과.

Cytokinins(시토키닌) Zeatin(제아틴) is most abundant natural cytokinin Synthesized mostly in root tips Stimulate cell division, promote leaf expansion, and retard leaf aging

그림 35.10. 담배(Nicotiana tabacum) 조직 배양에서 옥신과 시토키닌의 비율의 영향.

Ethylene(에틸렌) Ethylene gas Present in fruits, flowers, seeds, leaves, roots Promotes fruit ripening, senescence(노화) and abscission(탈리)

Abscission Zone(탈리 부위) 그림 35.11. 단풍나무(Acer)에 있는 탈리 부위.

Ethylene Removal of seed pods in soybean delays senescence since ethylene is not produced 그림 35.12. 완두(Glycine max) 꼬투리를 제거하면 노화가 지연된다는 것을 보여주는 실험.

Brassinosteroids(브라시노스테로이드) Group of steroid hormones Highest concentrations in shoot tips and in developing seeds and embryos Stimulate cell division and elongation 그림 35.13. 브라시노스테로이드는 유전자 발현을 조절하여 빛에 대한 식물의 생장 반응을 중재함.

Abscisic acid(앱시스산) ABA Synthesized from carotenoid pigments inside plastids in leaves Promotes stomatal closure; may trigger seed and bud dormancy

그림 35.14. 다년생 콘플라워(Centaurea montana)의 눈에 있는 비늘들(휴면상태).

Jasmonates(자스민산자스몬산) JA and oligosaccharins(올리고당) Signaling roles Regulate growth; trigger defense responses

35.2 Plant Chemical Defenses Jasmonate and other compounds interact in a general response to wounds The hypersensitive response(HR) and PR proteins are other general defenses Secondary metabolites defend against pathogens and herbivores

35.2 (cont.) Gene-for-gene recognition allows rapid responses to specific threats Systemic acquired resistance(SAR) can provide long-term protection Extremes of heat and cold also elicit protective chemical responses

General Responses to Wounds Hormone-induced wound responses limit damage from bacteria, fungi, worms, or plant-eating insects

그림 35.15. 상처에 대한 시스테민(systemin)(펩티드 호르몬)반응.

Hypersensitive Response(과민성 반응) Isolates an infection site by surrounding it with dead cells Salicylic acid(살리실산) (SA) induces synthesis of PR (pathogenesis-related) proteins 그림 35.16. 과민성 반응의 증거.

Secondary Metabolites(2차 대사물질(산물)) Oligosaccharins(올리고당) trigger synthesis of phytoalexins(파이토알렉신) Function as antibiotics Examples:(2차대사물질의 예) Caffeine, cocaine, strychnine Tannins Terpenes: Conifer resins, essential oils

Gene-for-Gene Recognition(유전자-유전자 인식) Enables plant to recognize pathogen chemically and mount defenses against it Plant’s R gene Pathogen’s Avr gene(avirulent, 비병원성)

그림 35.17. 유전자-유전자 저항성이 작동하는 방법에 대한 모델. 그림 35.17. 유전자-유전자 저항성이 작동하는 방법에 대한 모델.

Systemic Acquired Resistance(전신성 획득 저항, SAR) Provides long-term protection against some pathogens Salicylic acid passes from infected organ to newly forming organs such as leaves, which then synthesize PR proteins

그림 35.18. 전신성 획득저항에 대한 제안 메커니즘.

Heat-Shock Proteins(열충격 단백질) HSPs can reversibly bind enzymes and other proteins in plant cells Prevents denaturing when plant is under heat stress

Antifreeze Proteins(부동 단백질) Stabilize cell proteins when cells are threatened with freezing Help maintain structural integrity of cell proteins

35.3 Plant Responses to the Environment: Movements(운동;움직임) Phototropisms(굴광성) are responses to light Gravitropism(굴중성) orients plant parts to the pull of gravity Thigmotropism(굴촉성) and thigmomorphogenesis(굴촉형태발생) are responses to physical contact Nastic movements(경성 운동; 기울어짐) are nondirectional

Phototropisms(굴광성) Growth responses to directional light source Blue light receptors trigger auxin transport Auxin triggers differential cell elongation

그림 35.19. 유식물에서의 굴광성.

Gravitropism(굴중성) Growth response to Earth’s gravitational pull Statoliths(평형석) move in response to gravity 그림 35.20. 평형석 가설을 지지하는 증거.

Gravitropism Mechanical stimulus from statoliths triggers auxin transport, leading to differential cell elongation Stems exhibit negative gravitropism, growing upward, while roots show positive gravitropism

Gravitropism 그림 35.21. 어린 줄기에서의 굴중성 반응. 유식물을 5일간 암실에서 키운 후, 옆으로 놓은 다음 0.5 cm 간격으로 표시. 음성 굴중성에 의해 2시간 이내에 줄기가 똑바로 섰음.

Thigmotropism(굴촉성) Growth in response to contact with a solid object 그림 35.22. 지지대를 감고 있는 시계풀(Passiflora) 덩굴손에서의 굴촉성 반응.

Thigmomorphogenesis(촉성형태발생) Mechanical stress causes the stem to add girth Caused by frequent strong winds, rainstorms, grazing animals, etc 그림 35.23. 토마토에 대한 물리적 스트레스의 효과. (a) 대조군, 온실재배, (b) 28일동안 280 rpm으로 30초간 물리적으로 흔들어 주었음, (c) (b)를 하루에 두번씩 행함.

Nastic Movements(경성운동) Reversible responses to nondirectional stimuli Movements in leaves, leaflets, flowers 그림 35.24. 콩과 식물 잎에서의 경성 수면 운동. 23시간 동안 계속 암 처리를 하였지만, 수면 운동은 일출이나 일몰과 상관없이 계속되었음.

Nastic Movements Sensitive plant: 미모사(Mimosa pudica) Mechanical stimulation triggers a membrane action potential(활동전위) Water then enters or exits cells of pulvinus(엽침), triggering leaf folding

Sensitive Plant: Mimosa pudica 그림 35.25. 예민한 식물인 미모사의 소엽들의 경성 운동.

35.4 Plant Responses to the Environment: Biological Clocks(생체시계) Circadian rhythms(개일리듬; 일주기성 리듬) are based on 24-hour cycles Photoperiodism(광주기성) involves seasonal changes in the relative length of night and day Cycles of light and dark often influence flowering Dormancy is an adaptation to seasonal changes or stress

Circadian Rhythms(일주기성 리듬) 24 hours cycles Internal time-measuring mechanisms with a biochemical basis Environmental cues can “reset” clocks Enables seasonal adjustments in growth, development, and reproduction

Photoperiodism(광주기성) Responses to change in relative length of daylight and darkness Also allows biological clock to be “reset” for seasonal adjustments to day length Controlled by phytochrome(피토크롬) pigment

Phytochrome(피토크롬) Converts to active form (Pfr) during daylight, when red wavelengths dominate Reverts to inactive form (Pr) at sunset, at night, or in shade, when far-red(원적외선; 근적외선) wavelengths predominate

Phytochrome Switching Mechanism 그림 35.26. 식물의 여러 부위의 생장을 촉진하거나 억제할 수 있는 피토크롬 스위치 메커니즘.

Phytochrome Pfr controls types of enzymes produced in particular cells Examples: Seed germination Stem elongation Leaf expansion Flowers, fruits, seeds 그림 35.27. 어린 콩과 식물에서 암실의 효과. 카로티노이드는 합성되지만 엽록소가 합성되지 않아서 노란색임. 대조군보다 긴 줄기, 작은 잎, 작은 뿌리를 가짐.

Flowering Responses(개화반응) (1) Long-day plants(장일식물; 단야식물) Flower in spring or summer, when day length is long relative to night 그림 35.28. 장일식물인 시금치에 대한 낮 길이의 영향.

Flowering Responses (2) Short-day plants(단일식물; 장야식물) Flower in late summer or autumn, when day length is relatively short Intermediate-day plants(중간식물; 중일식물) In between long- and short-day plants Day-neutral plants(중일식물; 광주기 중립식물) Flowering not affected by photoperiod

Night Length Controls Photoperiodism 그림 35.29. 밤의 길이가 개화에 중요하다는 것을 보여주는 실험.

Florigen(화성소): Chemical Signals for Flowering 그림 35.30. 개화 신호 전달 경로의 모델.

Vernalization(춘화처리) and Flowering Vernalization (“making springlike”) Period of low temperature stimulates flowering Used to force bulbs to flower for certain holidays

Dormancy(휴면) Perennial or biennial plant stops growing even though conditions appear to be suitable for continued growth Preparation for winter Phytochrome used to sense long nights of autumn

Experiment: Effect of Day/Night Length 그림 35.31. 미송의 생장에 있어서 낮과 밤의 상대적 길이의 영향. 왼쪽은 낮의 길이가 짧아서(12시간) 휴면상태에 있음. 오른쪽은 낮의 길이를 길게(밤의 길이를 짧게) 하여 휴면 없이 생장하도록 함.

Breaking Dormancy(휴면 타파) Requires exposure to sufficient periods of low temperatures Gibberellin and abscisic acid signals 그림 35.32. 라일락의 휴면하는 눈들에 대한 낮은 온도의 영향.

35.5 Signal Responses at the Cellular Level Several signal response pathways operate in plants Second messenger(2차 신호전달자) systems enhance the plant cell’s response to a hormone’s signal

Signal Response Pathways Hormones and environmental stimuli alter behavior of target cells Signal molecules bind to receptors(수용체) in target cells Response pathway ultimately alters gene expression Changes induced in cell’s shape or internal structure or influence its metabolism

그림 35.33. 식물세포에서의 신호에 대한 반응 경로.

Receptors(수용체) Some hormones and growth factors bind to receptors at target cell’s plasma membrane Receptor changes shape Binding triggers release of internal second messengers(2차 신호전달자) Diffuse to nucleus and alter gene expression

Second Messengers Reaction sequence amplifies cell’s response to signal Activated receptor activates series of proteins G proteins and enzymes stimulate synthesis of second messengers (such as IP3) Bind to ion channels on endoplasmic reticulum, vacuole, plasma membrane, etc

Action of Second Messengers Bound channels open to release calcium ions Ions enter cytoplasm and activate protein kinases Kinases activate specific proteins that produce cell response Many proteins can be activated, so signal is amplified significantly