Intercultural Communication Lecture_

Culture and Gender Sex: most used to refer to the biological features based on chromosomal evidence that distinguish males from females Gender: most often used to refer to the learned behaviors and attitudes associated with the words feminine and masculine; can be socially constructed The distinction that sex is fixed before gender is a product of the modern era In United States, children are aware of gender role differences by age of two (Witt, 1997) © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Gender and Communication Anthropologists have shown that women share some common communication behaviors across cultures – Ritual laments such as over the loss of a loved one – Girls are more likely to hear twice as many diminutives—words like kitty or dolly in place of cat or doll Women and men literally speak different languages – In Zulu, women and men use different words for the same thing – In Japanese, word endings using wa are for female speakers and na are for male speakers – Chinese Nushu language created and propagated by women for women © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Status of Women Human Development Index (HDI), created by United Nations and comparing women to men, showed in 1993 that no country treated its women as well as men Gender equality not dependent on income levels, with some developing countries having greater opportunities for women In 1991, Japan was number 1 on the overall index, but number 17 on the female HDI In 1995, two new indices were created to unravel the differences: Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) and Gender Empowerment Measure; GDI still lower than HDI © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Status of Women Newest measure is the Gender Inequality Index---a composite measure of three dimensions: – Health (maternal mortality ratio and the adolescent fertility rate) – Empowerment (share of parliamentary seats held by each sex and secondary and higher education attainment levels) – Labor (participation in the workforce) Generally, gender inequality is highest in South Asia, Sub- Saharan Africa, and Arab states (2008) United States ranked 37 th in 2008 © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

World Economic Forum Study Released fifth report on world gender inequity in 2010 Independent of UN Based on health, education, politics, and economic opportunity Consistent with UN report, shows Nordic countries to have least gender inequality © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

World Economic Forum Study Health – Mortality, sex ratio, adolescent fertility, and life expectancy – Sex ratio at birth has become a reliable indicator of discrimination based on sex-based abortions or infanticide – Many countries have no laws on violence against women – Female genital mutilation practiced in more than 30 countries – Women are victims of neglect, prostitution, rape, incest, wife battering, political torture, abuses of refugees, and the ravages of war © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

World Economic Forum Study Education – Nearly two-thirds of the illiterate people in the world are women, although there have been great gains – In developed regions of the world, enrollment in primary and secondary education is nearly universal – By 1990, higher education enrollment for women was 70% of what it was for men; now more women enroll in higher education than men in 32 countries Economics – Women represent 40% of the global workforce; 70% of people living in poverty are women – Women make three-fourths the wages of men – Women are still dominant in traditionally underpaid fields © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

World Economic Forum Study Political Participation – In ancient Rome, women were not considered citizens – Most countries had to protest for women to get the right to vote; women still cannot vote in Kuwait – Women’s representation in parliaments worldwide is about 13.1%, wealthy countries don’t necessarily have higher representation – Only six countries have more than one-third female representation: Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Norway, the Netherlands, and Iceland – 32 countries have some sort of female quota for representation – This affects laws that are directly related to women © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Comparison of Individual Countries Nordic countries – Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden – Shared development paths – Nordic countries rank high in femininity scale (Hofstede) – Nordic countries have a strong value for personal freedom – A long tradition of egalitarianism and a strong women’s movement contributed to the low degree of gender inequality in the Nordic countries – Since the mid-1970s, political parties have instituted quotas for female representation – Gender equality and women’s empowerment are national policies © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Comparison of Individual Countries Mexico – Ranks sixth highest in masculinity on Hofstede’s scale – Ranks low on gender equality indexes – In 1980s, female enrollment in universities skyrocketed – Political parties now have quotas for number of female candidates – In 2007, President Felipe Calderón said that despite antidiscrimination laws, millions of women suffer from workplace discrimination and physical and psychological abuse due to Mexico’s enduring “culture of machismo” – 80% of women who are murdered are killed in own homes – In 2006, judges urged to change marriage vows that had portrayed women as delicate or weak © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Comparison of Individual Countries China – Not included in original Hofstede studies – Overall on the World Economic Forum gender inequality study 38th, ranking high in economic participation and economic opportunity for women – Culture values family above individual and boys above girls – Improved status of women was state initiated but Confucian traditions still remain a barrier – One-child policy has improved conditions but has greater cultural and social impacts – Human trafficking is a major concern in China as a source, transit, and destination country for women and children © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Comparison of Individual Countries Japan – Hofstede placed Japan highest in masculinity – Similar rank to China on the World Economic Forum gender inequality study, but ranks 12th on Gender Inequality Index – Extremely high on women’s health (3 rd ), lower on other issues – The postwar constitution clearly stipulated equality under law and excluded discrimination on the basis of sex – Trend is to smaller families – Within the home, women control the household income and family life – More women work, but are tracked to lower paying jobs – Changing roles of women; breaking down gender roles © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Comparison of Individual Countries South Korea – Considered a masculine society on Hofstede’s scale – Korea ranks lower than China or Japan on the World Economic Forum global gender gap; highest ranking for health – Family law is male dominated, and wives can be driven from the house if they do not produce a healthy son India – Rank is similar to South Korea – Women have increased participation in workforce – Violence against women has increased – Infanticide of female fetuses is practiced – Quotas for female representatives in parliament © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Comparison of Individual Countries Sub-Saharan Africa – Largely patriarchal societies – Women have fared better in countries where there was participation in campaigns against colonialism, White minority rule, or authoritarian regimes – Uganda has quotas for women in local council seats – Has half the maternal, newborn, and child deaths Arab States – The Koran revolutionized life for women—all are equal – Actual practice hasn’t followed Islam’s ideal – Patriarchal society based on cultural traditions, social considerations, and contested interpretations of the Koran – Strict disciplining of women is encouraged – Women can’t drive in Saudi Arabia © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Family Units The organization in which the majority of human beings continue to exist Women’s role has a relationship to cultural values Nuclear family: One married pair and their unmarried offspring Extended family: Two or more nuclear families joined by an extension of the parent-child relationship Exogamy: the practice of marrying outside a defined group Endogamy: the practice of marrying within a defined group © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Marriage Cultures regulate how many spouses a person can have, who has more authority and dominance, and from what group a person can choose Mutual love, kindness, emotional stability, intelligence, and health were universally desired In Western countries, marriage as an institution has waned Divorce rates in China have soared In the industrialized world, only in the Nordic countries is the poverty rate below 10% for one-parent families Changing norms have freed families, women, and children in their traditional roles © 2012, SAGE Publications, Inc

Homework WOMEN IN ADVERTISING -Find examples from nationalmagazines and international magazines. In these magazines, look for some ads that are directed toward women and some that are directed toward men. Describe and compare the ads you find. - en-in-advertising/ en-in-advertising/ -

Questions to Answer How are the images presented in the advertisements different? In what ways did the older advertisements contribute to stereotyping? In what ways do the new advertisements reflect the culture of origin? When you compared the ads for men and the ads for women were there any “hidden messages” that suggested how women should behave or be perceived? If so, what were they?