Forces Challenging the Conservative European Order LiberalismNationalism

Early Liberal Principles * Note that while C19 th Liberals did support constitutional government, with powers of monarchs being limited & governments being responsible to elected representatives of parliament, they DID NOT support mass democracy. C19 th Liberalism Legal Equality Religious Toleration Freedom of Press Free Market Economies Constitutional Government*

Rise of Nationalism in Europe Nationalism can be regarded as the most significant political force of C19th Europe. Impact continued in Europe & rest of the world in the following century, & still today. Definitions of nationalism typically suggest nationalism is based on demand that groups of people (known as “nations”) connected by their common language, &/or culture, &/or history, &/or geography, &/or religion should be ruled by their own government within their own state. This was not an idea that had significant affect in Europe before C19 th.

Rise of Nationalism in Europe (2) Origins of nations & nationalism are also v. controversial, but the Romantic Movement is often recognized as having played an impt. role in their development in Europe. Historians & writers in C19th Europe who collected information & stories about nations’ “pasts”, their common folklore, literature & language & customs, & transmitted their work to larger audiences through the mechanized printing press, helped to give people a sense of community beyond the immediate locality in which they lived. Their ideas & findings transmitted further by schoolteachers.

The Romantic Movemet The Romantic Movement, or Romanticism, gained strength in the early C19th and was partly a reaction to the values of the Enlightenment and impact of industrialization. Its influence was felt in art, literature, folklore, history and cultural studies, and intellectually it emphasized the importance of understanding the role played by emotions, feelings & imagination (as opposed to rationality).

Major Centers of C19 th Nationalism in Europe IRISH GERMAN POLISH BALKAN ITALIAN EASTEUROPEAN

Major Centers of C19 th European Nationalism (2) Irish nationalism: Known as “The Irish Problem”, Ireland taken over by Britain in 1800, but Irish nationalists began to demand independence (at least greater self-government) Italian Nationalism: Divided among many states, with Austria esp. powerful in Italian affairs, Italian nationalists wanted national unification of the Italian people German Nationalism: Divided among many states, German nationalists wanted a united German nation-state

Major Centers of C19 th European Nationalism (3) Polish Nationalism: Poland had lost its independence, its territory distributed among Great Powers. Polish nationalists wanted an independent nation-state. Eastern European Nationalism: Largely within Austrian Empire where many different ethnic groups co-habited, different communities, esp. Hungarians (Magyars), Czechs, Slovenes, began to politicize their demands for their own ethnic groups, & call for national independence. Balkan Nationalism: Largely in Ottoman territories, (also Russian,Austrian), Serbs,Greeks,Romanians, Bulgarians & others began demand independence.

Metternich & the Conservative Order Perhaps most significant center of conservatism during post- Vienna years was Austria. Empire’s Chancellor Prince Metternich ( ) aware of dangers of nationalism & liberalism to multi-national empire like Austria, & that even beyond borders of Empire, in the German Bund the rise of these forces could threaten stability within Austria.

The German Bund At the Vienna Congress a very loose confederation was formed among the German States known as the Bund. It had 39 members, most powerful of which were Austria & Prussia. Metternich was determined to dominate the Bund esp. so as to prevent the rise of demands for liberal constitutionalism & German nationalist forces that could threaten the integrity of Austria within which millions of ethnic Germans also lived.

The Carlsbad Decrees In early C19th there were active German student clubs known as ‘Burschenschaften’ that were pushing the demand for German national unification. To prevent their demands from spreading, Metternich persuaded the main German states to accept the Carlsbad Decrees of July Each university to have a representative of state’s ruler to make sure university (incl. students & professors) obeyed laws & acted “morally” Professors promoting ideas that challenged existing regimes to be dismissed Burchenschaften banned & all individuals involved in secret or unauthorized university associations prohibited from holding public office Heavy censorship of the press with severe penalties for those disobeying censorship laws

Conservatism in France Similar conservative trends to those imposed by Metternich were seen during this period in other parts of Europe too. E.g., in France, there was also a wave of conservatism. Louis XVI, originally accepted circumstances had changed & that his powers would be constitutionally limited by a ‘Charter’. The French Charter had guaranteed legal equality & religious toleration, & establishment of a partially elected parliament. (But, parliament’s upper house was actually appointed by the King, & though the lower house was elected, only those with substantial property qualified to vote & to stand as candidates). By 1820, however, following assassination of second-in-line to throne, king persuaded to become more conservative & impose press censorship, further restrict right to vote, arrested many, (incl. liberals), suspected of threatening his regime, & put secondary education under control of Catholic Church.

Early Challenges to the Vienna Settlement 1820 Revolution in Spain & Uprisings in many Italian states against “legitimate” monarchies restored after Vienna. Put down by Great Power intervention. In 1825, in ‘Decembrist Revolt’, liberals tried to gain greater power in Russia. When Tsar Alexander I died Nov 1825 liberal army officers gave backing to his replacement by his less conservative brother Constantine, but were ultimately unsuccessful in getting him installed on the throne, & instead Tsar Nicholas, another brother of Alexander seen as more conservative became the new Tsar & tried to maintain tight control through censorship & secret police.

Tsar Nicholas I

Early Challenges to the Vienna Settlement (2) Somewhat in contradiction, however, the Great Powers were to intervene in favour of Revolution in Greece that began in 1821 & sought independence from the Ottoman Empire. In this case, in fact, European liberals strongly supported their states’ intervening & leading figures such as Lord Byron actually went to fight on the side of the insurgents. They created the image of this struggle for national liberation as the re-birth of ancient Greek civilization & democracy as opposed to the oppressive, despotic Turk. By 1830 Greece had been recognized as an independent kingdom by the Ottomans. (Serbia was also to gain independence in the Ottoman Balkans the same year).

Following the general ratification of its indepence in 1832, Kingdom of Greece expanded over the next century to more or less its present shape in different stages. Modern Greece

Revolutions of 1830 Partially successful challenges to conservative order occurred in st major successful challenge in France where Bourbon monarchy was overthrown. Charles X, Louis XVIII’ brother, became king after Louis’ death (1824). Charles was much more extreme conservative (supported by “ultraroyalists”) who wanted to turn clock back fully to absolutist years. He introduced series of conservative / reactionary policies incl. payments to aristocrats who lost land in French Revolution. Unhappy that there were too many liberals in Chamber of Deputies, he called new election in early But liberals gained even more seats! Charles now led royal coup d'état issuing ‘Four Ordinances’ on July 25th Charles X

Four Ordinances & ‘July Revolution’ 1) Restrictions on Freedom of the Press 2) Chamber of Deputies Dissolved 3) New Elections Called 4) Franchise restricted to only the very wealthiest These ordinances basically ignored constitutional monarchy established at Vienna. Liberal newspapers called on people to resist. Labourers in Paris, (already hurt by harsh economic conditions since 1827), took to the streets & were attacked by Kings forces in the ‘July Days’. Many died, but ultimately king was forced to abdicate on Aug 2 nd The Chamber of Deputies chose Duke of Orleans, thereafter known as Louis Philippe, (known to have more liberal leanings), as new king.

The Independence of Belgium Developments in France in 1830 led to political changes in other areas. E.g., at Vienna new state known as United Kingdom of the Netherlands formed incl. territory known later as Belgium. Uprisings began late Aug 1830 & Dutch forces failed to defeat Belgians who declared their independence & established a liberal constitution. This territorial change conflicted with Vienna decisions, but Russia busy with own uprising of Poles, Prussia trying to suppress liberal uprisings in smaller neighbouring German states & Austria likewise in Italian states. Great Powers therefore took no action. Belgian independence officially recognized with Treaty of London in 1839.

British Counterpart to Revolution Revolutionary uprisings shook much of Europe from late C18 th onwards, but Britain was an exception. While no revolution in Britain during this period, there was, however, change. Change was more gradual & incremental & usually result of compromise between more conservative & liberal elements of society. E.g., ‘Great Reform Bill of 1832’ increased size of British electorate by providing wealthier business & commercial class with right to vote. This change was not a result of revolution, but of recognition of changes in domestic balance of power, compromise & a strong parliamentary tradition open to adapting in order to meet the rising needs / demands for change.

Rulers of France: Louis XI (r ) First Republic ( ) Napoleon Bonaparte ( ) Louis XVIII ( ) Charles X ( ) Louis Philippe ( ) Second Republic ( ) Louis Napoleon Bonaparte ( ) Third Republic ( )