© 2008 Townsend Press Fourth Edition John Langan Fourth Edition John Langan T EN S TEPS TO B UILDING C OLLEGE R EADING S KILLS

Chapter Seven: Relationships II THIS CHAPTER IN A NUTSHELL To help make their ideas clear, authors use transitions— bridge words that carry the reader from one idea to the next. —Typical illustration transitions are for example, for instance, and such as. —Typical comparison transitions are alike and similar. —Typical contrast transitions are but, however, and in contrast. —Typical cause and effect transitions are reasons, because, therefore, and as a result. To help make their ideas clear, authors also use common patterns of organization. —Common patterns of organization are definition and example order, comparison and/or contrast order, and cause and effect order.

RELATIONSHIPS Besides relationships involving addition and time, there are three other common kinds of relationships: Relationships that involve illustration (examples) Relationships that involve comparison and contrast Relationships that involve cause and effect

ILLUSTRATION A.Getting organized is not difficult. Important dates can be marked on a large kitchen calendar. B.Getting organized is not difficult. For instance, important dates can be marked on a large kitchen calendar. Which item below is easier to read and understand? Words That Show Illustration

ILLUSTRATION A.Getting organized is not difficult. Important dates can be marked on a large kitchen calendar. B.Getting organized is not difficult. For instance, important dates can be marked on a large kitchen calendar. Which item below is easier to read and understand? Words That Show Illustration The words for instance make the second item easier to understand. They make it clear that marking dates on a kitchen calendar is one easy way to get organized. Explanation

Illustration words tell us that a writer will provide one or more examples to make a given idea clear. Here are some common example words: (for) example (for) instance to illustrate includingsuch asonce Illustration Words ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration

In the sentences below, notice how the illustration words signal that one or more examples will follow. Some birds, such as the penguin and the ostrich, cannot fly. My mother’s love of chocolate has led to some pretty weird combinations. Once she put Hershey’s syrup on a cheese sandwich. ILLUSTRATION Words That Show Illustration

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Definition Definition and Example Example The definition and example pattern of organization includes just what its name suggests: a definition and one or more examples.

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.When acupuncture is used to kill pain, needles are inserted far from the area of pain. B.Acupuncture is a Chinese medical technique that involves inserting special needles in certain places in the body. C.In one stomach operation, for instance, four needles in the patient’s outer ears eliminate pain.

ILLUSTRATION The Definition and Example Pattern Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen. Acupuncture is a Chinese medical technique that involves inserting special needles in certain places in the body. When acupuncture is used to kill pain, needles are inserted far from the area of pain. In one stomach operation, for instance, four needles in the patient’s outer ears eliminate pain. The paragraph begins with a definition of acupuncture. The second sentence discusses a particular use of acupuncture. The third sentence gives an example of the use of acupuncture for pain. The illustration words for instance signal the example. Explanation

Which item below is easier to read and understand? COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison A.Human infants suck their thumbs; baby elephants suck their trunks. B.Just as human infants suck their thumbs, baby elephants suck their trunks.

Which item below is easier to read and understand? COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison A.Human infants suck their thumbs; baby elephants suck their trunks. B.Just as human infants suck their thumbs, baby elephants suck their trunks. The words just as make the second item easier to understand. They make it clear that the author is pointing out the similarity of the two actions. Explanation

Comparison words signal similarities. Authors use them to show that the second idea is like the first idea. Here are some common words that show comparison: (just) as in like (similar) manner same (just) likesimilar(ly)in the same way alikesimilarityresemble likewisebothequally Comparison Words COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison

COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Comparison In the sentences below, notice how the comparison words show that things are alike in some way. The carpet was so old and faded that it looked like a gray shadow. Tattoos, which used to be seen as lower class, are part of our culture today. Likewise, many middle-class people now have body piercings.

Which item below is easier to read and understand? COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast A.The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, but the summers are hot and humid. B.The weather in Florida is usually wonderful. The summers are hot and humid.

Which item below is easier to read and understand? COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast A.The weather in Florida is usually wonderful, but the summers are hot and humid. B.The weather in Florida is usually wonderful. The summers are hot and humid. The word but makes the first item easier to understand. This contrast word makes it clear that the author is pointing out that the weather is wonderful in spite of the summer heat and humidity. Explanation

Contrast words signal differences. Authors use them to show how two things differ in one or more ways. Here are some common words that show contrast: COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast but instead stilldifference yetin contrastas opposed todifferent(ly) howeveron the other handin spite ofdiffers from althoughon the contrarydespiteunlike neverthelesseven thoughrather thanwhile Contrast Words

In the sentences below, notice how the contrast words show that one idea is different from another idea. Although the movie had an exciting plot, the actors in the lead roles were not very convincing. A laptop computer is convenient and portable; on the other hand, a desktop computer is usually less expensive. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST Words That Show Contrast

The comparison-contrast pattern shows how two things are alike or how they are different, or both. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison-Contrast Pattern is like Comparison AB is different from Contrast A B

See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.The snakes have similar markings: red, yellow, and black bands. B.The coral snake and the milk snake may look alike, but there’s an important difference between them. C.However, the milk snake is harmless, and the coral snake is very poisonous. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison-Contrast Pattern

The coral snake and the milk snake may look alike, but there’s an important difference between them. The snakes have similar markings: red, yellow, and black bands. However, the milk snake is harmless, and the coral snake is very poisonous. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST The Comparison-Contrast Pattern The paragraph begins with a general statement: coral snakes and milk snakes look alike but have important differences. The second sentence compares the two and shows how they are alike. The last sentence contrasts the two, showing how they are different. Explanation Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen.

CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Which item below is easier to read and understand? A.Nina cares for her elderly parents. She has very little free time. B.Because Nina cares for her elderly parents, she has very little free time.

CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect Which item below is easier to read and understand? A.Nina cares for her elderly parents. She has very little free time. B.Because Nina cares for her elderly parents, she has very little free time. The word because makes the second item easier to understand. This cause and effect word makes it clear why Nina has very little free time. Explanation

Cause and effect words signal that the author is explaining the reason why something happened or the results of something. Here are some common cause and effect words : Cause and Effect Words CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect therefore so because (of)thus (as a) resulteffect(as a) consequenceresults in causeexplanationconsequentlyled to affectdue tosincereason

In the sentences below, notice how the cause and effect words introduce a reason for something or a result of something. People eat fewer hamburgers than they did in the past. Therefore, fast-food restaurants have developed new items for their menus. Digital cameras do not require the use of film; as a result, they have become more popular than conventional ones. CAUSE AND EFFECT Words That Show Cause and Effect

The cause and effect pattern shows why something happened. CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern Cause Cause and Effect Effect Cause and Effect Cause

See if you can arrange the following sentences in an order that makes sense. Which sentence should come first? Second? Last? A.Accidents are also caused by speeding, as drivers try to get home as quickly as possible. B.Traffic accidents are more likely to result during evening rush hour. C.Because drivers are tired at the end of the day, they are not able to respond quickly enough to changes in traffic. CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern

Traffic accidents are more likely to result during evening rush hour. Because drivers are tired at the end of the day, they are not able to respond quickly enough to changes in traffic. Accidents are also caused by speeding, as drivers try to get home as quickly as possible. CAUSE AND EFFECT The Cause and Effect Pattern The paragraph begins with an effect: more accidents occur during rush hour. It then states two causes of the effect. Explanation Here is the logical order for the sentences on the last screen.

CHAPTER REVIEW In this chapter, you learned about three kinds of relationships that authors use to make their ideas clear: Definitions and examples — To help readers understand the important ideas and terms in a subject, textbook authors often take time to include key definitions (often setting them off in italic or boldface) and examples of those definitions. When reading a textbook, it is usually a good idea to mark off both definitions and examples. — Transition words that signal the definition and example pattern include for example, for instance, to illustrate, and such as. Comparison and/or contrast — Authors often discuss how two things are alike or how they are different, or both. — Transition words that signal comparisons include alike and similar. — Transition words that signal contrasts include but, however, and in contrast. (Chapter Review continues on next slide)

CHAPTER REVIEW, continued Cause and effect — Authors often discuss the reasons why something happens or the effects of something that has happened. — Transition words that signal causes include reason and because. — Transition words that signal effects include therefore, consequently, and as a result. The next chapter—Chapter 8—will develop your skill in making inferences about what you read. Note that pages 299–304 in the textbook list and offer practice in all the transitions and patterns of organization covered in “Relationships I” and “Relationships II.”