CHAPTER 9 STRUCTURING AND ORDERING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 1 Prepared by Robert Gass & John Seiter

WHAT IS AN ATTITUDE? Cicero’s five canons of rhetoric Dispositio  The effective, orderly arrangement of ideas Elocutio  Fluency, command of language Inventio  The invention and discovery of arguments Memoria  Memory and mnemonic devices Pronuntiato  Delivery factors such as pitch, rate, voice quality COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 2

Is it better to spell things out for the listener?  The source may be perceived as more candid, forthright  There is less risk the listener will reach the wrong conclusion Or is it better to let the listener figure things out him/her self?  The source may seem less patronizing  There is less risk of psychological reactance (e.g., the perception the listener’s choice is being restricted) COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 3 IMPLICIT VERSUS EXPLICIT CONCLUSIONS

For involved listeners, implicit conclusions are generally preferred For knowledgeable receivers implicit conclusions are also preferred  Persuasion is more participatory  Self-generated conclusions are more palatable  Involved listeners can draw their own conclusions  There is less risk of psychological reactance  The message is more acceptable to a hostile audience COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 4 IMPLICIT VERSUS EXPLICIT CONCLUSIONS

Explicit conclusions are better when:  The message is not personally relevant to the listener  The listeners aren’t knowledgeable about the issue  The message is complex or could be easily misconstrued COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 5 IMPLICIT VERSUS EXPLICIT CONCLUSIONS

 Is it better to emphasize potential gains?  Gain-framed messages emphasize the positive  “You could get rich on this investment opportunity!”  Or is it better to emphasize potential losses?  Loss-framed messages emphasize the negative  “You could lose everything you’ve saved.” COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 6 GAIN-FRAMED VS. LOSS-FRAMED MESSAGES

 In general, loss-framed messages are more effective  People are generally risk averse  They are more worried about losing what they already have  “a bird in the hand…”  Present-minded people respond better to loss-framed messages  Future-minded people are equally receptive to gain or loss framed messages  In a controlled study, 75% of respondents chose option A (gain-framed)  58% of respondents chose option B (loss-framed)  The probability is the same for both scenarios  So why do more people choose A?  When designing a persuasive message, tell your audience what it stands to lose by non- compliance COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 7 GAIN-FRAMED VS. LOSS-FRAMED MESSAGES

The role of receiver involvement in the ELM:  For receivers with low involvement, it is the quantity of arguments that counts  For receivers with high involvement, it is the quality of arguments that matters COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 8 QUALITY VERSUS QUANTITY OF ARGUMENTS When receivers have low involvement, quantity counts. When receivers have high involvement, quality counts.

Evidence use almost always facilitates persuasion (Reinard, 1988)  Evidence can increase speaker credibility  High quality evidence may increase central processing  There is a “ceiling effect” for high credibility sources who use evidence Evidence is most effective when receivers have high involvement Evidence can function as a peripheral cue  a prosecutor presents “a mountain of evidence” COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 9 EVIDENCE AND PROOF

By nature, people are drawn to stories (Kida, 2006)  “Let me tell you about an experience I had…” But… Anecdotal evidence is subject to the “hasty generalization” fallacy. People often distrust statistics.  “You can prove anything with statistics.” Yet… Quantifiable evidence is more testable, more generalizable. COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 10 ANECDOTAL VS. STATISTICAL PROOF

However, a meta-analysis found a slight advantage for statistical evidence (Allen & Preiss, 1997) Different types of statistical proof have an additive effect (Kim et al., 2012) However… In laboratory studies, subjects are paying close attention (high involvement) When receivers pay close attention, statistics tend to be more effective When receivers do not pay close attention, narratives tend to be more effective As a persuader, you should use both  begin with a narrative example, then add statistics to show the example is not atypical COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 11 ANECDOTAL VS. STATISTICAL EVIDENCE

REPETITION AND MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT Mere Exposure Effect (MEE)  Repeated exposure to a stimulus increases liking for the stimulus.  ideas, brands, and people tend to grow on us  what’s familiar is comfortable, reassuring  Americans who were exposed to Chinese characters preferred the ones they saw more frequently  The MEE is stronger for topics and issues that are personally relevant  Repetition can increase awareness, learning, retention.  Wear-out can occur with over-exposure. COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 12

Anticlimax order  Giving your best arguments first Pyramidal order  Placing your best arguments in the middle Climax order  Saving your best arguments for the end Research shows it is better to place your strongest arguments first or last. The worst approach is to put your best arguments in the middle. COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 13 ORDER EFFECTS

People are better at remembering things that are earlier or later in a sequence, rather than in the middle. COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 14 PRIMACY VERSUS RECENCY Word recall based on word order: cat apple ball tree square head house door box car king hammer milk fish book tape arrow flower key shoe

When there are opposing sides, is it better to speak first or last? Primacy effect  It is better to speak first if the speeches are back to back. Recency effect  It is better to speak last if the speeches are separated in time. In a live political debate, speaking first would be an advantage. In campaign ads shown a week apart, appearing last would be an advantage. COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 15 PRIMACY VERSUS RECENCY

PRIMACY VERSUS RECENCY EFFECTS COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 16 Primacy effect most likely 1 st persuasive message 2 nd persuasive message Time delay Measurement of persuasive outcome Recency effect most likely 1 st persuasive message Time delay 2 nd persuasive message Measurement of persuasive outcome Neither a primacy nor a recency effect 1st persuasive message Time delay 2 nd persuasive message Time delay Measurement of persuasive outcome

Bland topics  A recency effect is more likely with uninvolving, noncontroversial material. Intriguing topics  A primacy effect is more likely with involving, interesting material. Product comparisons (Biswiss, et al., 2010)  Recency effect for equally desirable music  Primacy effect for equally undesirable music Experiential products (like music, clothing)  Produce a recency effect Non-experiential products (like scissors, light bulbs)  Produce a primacy effect COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 17 PRIMACY VERSUS RECENCY

INOCULATION Inoculation theory is based on a disease metaphor A small dose of the opposing position increases resistance to subsequent persuasion  Inoculation is more effective than a supportive, bolstering strategy Inoculation is especially applicable to “cultural truisms.”  beliefs we take for granted Inoculation is less effective on controversial topics  we expect alternative views COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 18

HOW INOCULATION WORKS  Threat is the motivational trigger  Threat increases the receiver’s perceived vulnerability  The listener then bolsters his/her defenses  Inoculation protects beyond the original arguments used  Inoculation increases immunity to new, novel arguments as well COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 19

Two-sided messages are almost always more persuasive  A “refutational” approach is required  The persuader must directly refute, not merely acknowledge, opposing arguments Exceptions are when receivers:  already agree  are easily confused  are uneducated or unintelligent  will not be exposed to the opposing side at a later time COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 20 ONE-SIDED VS. TWO-SIDED MESSAGES

HIERARCHY OF EFFECTIVENESS FOR ONE-SIDED VS. TWO-SIDED MESSAGES The persuasion hierarchy: (from most to least persuasive): 1. two-sided, refutational messages  20% more effective overall than one-sided messages 2. one-sided messages  20% more effective than two-sided, nonrefutational messages 3. two-sided, nonrefutational messages  Least effective of all COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 21

Forewarning increases resistance to influence attempts  receivers adopt a less receptive state of mind  receivers may prepare defenses and rehearse counter-arguments Forewarning’s effectiveness depends upon motivation and ability to disagree Forewarning versus inoculation:  Forewarning warns a listener of an impending attack (e.g. warning of persuasive intent)  Forewarning may or may not mention the topic area that will be attacked  Inoculation not mentions the topic area, it includes a weakened dose of the actual opposing arguments COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 22 FOREWARNING

STRENGTH MODEL OF SELF CONTROL Mental fatigue reduces one’s willpower to resist persuasion Forewarning conserves mental resources  Without forewarning: a diabetic goes out to dinner, but doesn’t know the restaurant has fresh baked bread and loads of desserts. The diabetic can’t resist.  With forewarning: a diabetic knows a restaurant has fresh bread and tempting desserts. The diabetic steels him/her self and decides “I’ll have one piece of bread and no dessert.” COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 23

PSYCHOLOGICAL REACTANCE Forewarning may elicit psychological reactance  Perceived threats to one’s freedom increase resistance  A warning of persuasive intent galvanizes a person to resist the influence attempt COPYRIGHT © 2014 PEARSON EDUCATION INC. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 24