By Nico Olson-Studler

People  Muhammad Ali was the khedive (leader) in Egypt’s independence from the Ottoman Empire. Ali concentrated his efforts to cultivate cotton as Egypt’s cash crop to boost their economy in Europe’s much larger. Ali also implemented a system of secular state schools to better educated his administration, he modernized the army, and installed a government printing press. Ali gained important ground for Egypt including the Nile River, Sudan, Syria, Palestine, Mecca, and Medina, while spreading the use of strict Islamic law in Egypt.

People continued..  Theodor Herzl was an influential character in the fight for the Zionist movement  Sultan Abdul Mejid enforced the Tanzimat reforms the restructured the Ottoman Empires legal code, social and educational standards, and promoted  Emperor Aurangzeb instituted additional taxes on non-Muslims in the Mughal government of India  Abd al-Qadir from Algeria showed resistance to French rule when they invaded by creating a state and modernized army of his own

Terms  Zionism/Zionist Movement: the nationalist movement of Jewish people to return and recreate a Jewish homeland in Israel (Zion). Jews were increasingly persecuted by anti-semetists and sought for freedom and citizenship in their own independent country.  Millet System: the organization of people in the Ottoman Empire, based on religious communities, each with its own religious leader who enforces laws, customs, and collects taxes.  Hatt-i Humayun edict: in 1856 the edict further administered conformity to westernization, such as equality under common law for all citizens, security of property, tax reform, and greater freedom of press (greater autonomy).

Terms continued..  English East India Company: British-Indian trade that established trading posts and factories in India (1639). The British bought spices and hand-made cotton textiles in return for bullion, wool, and metals. Industrial machinery was also introduced into India’s textile markets to speed up the manufacturing of raw cotton, jute, leather, and tea. The French East India Company also later established many trading posts in India. In 1857, Indians led an unsuccessful revolt against the Company, because they wanted India to be able to control their own economy, government, and social/culture structure instead of Britain’s Western influence deciding what India’s future would be like.  Board of Control: established by the British Parliament, the Board oversaw the progress of the English East India Company and made drastic changes by increasing the tax collection and lowering Indian tariffs, while raising British tariffs so that the British had easy access to the Indian Market, but the blocked the imports to India. India became a lucrative destination for overseas investment. This led to Britain's colonization over India.

Terms continued…  India’s railway system: the construction of the huge system was paid for by Indian taxes, but Britain manufactured and financed much of the iron and steel needed to build it. The nationwide railway system allowed a more widespread deployment of colonial troops, increased commerce benefitting both the British and Indians, relief of famine by transporting food and other goods, spread of political reach, and made it possible to make pilgrimage visits to religious shrines. India’s industrial revolution was made possible by the imperial support from Britain. Activity in mining, factory, and manufacturing work increased, displacing many hand craftsmen.  Signares: local female concubines or mistresses who entered sexual liaisons with foreign businessmen to help interpret the native language, customs, and conditions. This system of sexually pleasuring, but not marrying the males encouraged businessmen to travel for overseas trade. Not only were these sexual relations discouraged by European women, but they also distanced the social boundaries, gender roles, and sharpened racism between the colonizer and the colonized.

Terms continued….  Nabobs: wealthy European traders who traveled to India for business, but in result entered in relations with the local women, sometimes marrying and fathering Anglo- Indian children. Not only were these sexual relations discouraged by European women, but they also distanced the social boundaries, gender roles, and sharpened racism between the colonizer and the colonized.  Sati: the practice in India where widows burning themselves following the death of their husband. The British outlawed sati, encouraged widow remarriage, and established a minimum age for marriage under colonized India when introducing reforms granting women more freedom and education. Later on, some Indian women rejected their newly appointed freedoms in search for more traditional ways.

Events  The Ottoman Empire began its great decline with the losses of Hungary in 1699, the independence of Greece, the self-government of the provinces of Serbia, Wallachia, and Moldavia in 1829, and the independence of Egypt in 1832, becoming worldly known as the “sick man of Europe”, because it was unable to hold onto its territories. The Ottoman Empire was also unable to keep up with the powerful industrialized and Westernized countries.  In the Crimean War exposed the Ottoman Empires weakness to fight wars and negotiate diplomatic settlements. It lost many of its territories.  The crumble of the Ottoman Empire left a power vacuum that needed an international conference in Berlin in 1878 to resolve the conflict of successor through diplomacy, but only resulted in the sparks for World War One in 1914.

Events continued..  The Seven Years’ War between resulted in the defeat of the French by the British in India to establish the British as the principal European power in India. India sought aid from Britain and created an exchange of financial and military support from the British in return for part of tax earnings and governmental authority in certain regions of India  In 1869, the Suez Canal commissioned by Ishmail for the French to build, was opened and used as a short-cut for transportation between Europe and India (including other parts of Asia as well)

Events continued…  In 1876, Egypt was forced to appoint European experts as Commissioners of the Debt of Egypt because of its overspending, increasing debts and instability to take control of these problems. French and British representatives seized this opportunity to take control of the Suez Canal  The French attacked Algeria in 1830 to suppress piracy, but relations spun out of control and France forced Algeria’s surrender. In 1841 warfare broke out again, including Morocco. The war was bloody, but France gained control over the Algerian areas, allowing French military occupation and settlement. France annexed Algeria in 1870, but Algeria gained independence in 1962.Since then, some French culture has been incorporated into Algerian society, including French rights.