The History of Motivation and Emotion Chapter 2

I. Brief History of Motivation A. Aristotle’s Theory Causes of behavior: efficient (trigger), final (purpose), formal (theory), and material (brain) B. Hedonism Pursue pleasure and avoid pain 1. Ancient Sources Socrates, Democritus, and Epicurus: pleasure is to exceed pain in the long run.

I. Brief History of Motivation 2. Later philosophers Hobbes on incentive motivation: approach pleasing, avoid displeasings timuli. Locke on choice: small immediate versus large delayed reward. Bentham on principle of utility: increase/decrease in pleasure determines behavior.

I. Brief History of Motivation 3. Sigmund Freud Pleasure principle: pursue pleasure by sudden decrease in tension Reality principle: circumstances determine when to attain pleasure. 4. Edward Lee Thorndike Law of effect: satisfying consequences strengthen behavior; dissatisfying consequences weaken behavior.

I. Brief History of Motivation 5. Law of Effect Today Consequences refer to observables rather than to subjective states. 6. Current Trends Self control: choose delayed rewards. Impulsiveness: choose immediate reward.

C. Evolution and Motivation 1. Charles Darwin Theory of evolution is based on variation and selection. Principle of variation: values of a particular trait vary in frequency. Principle of selection: environment selects values that aid survival. 2. Herbert Spencer Pleasure selects for behaviors that aid survival. Pain selects against behaviors that are detrimental to survival. 3. Instincts Inherited impulses that produce specific pattern of behavior. 4. Current Trends Smiles and laughs from play help child master social environment.

D. Unconscious Motivation 1. Freuds’ Conscious-Unconscious Distinction Preconscious: small room containing thought, feelings, sensations. Unconscious: large room containing repressed impulses, instincts. Repression: censor prevents impulses from entering small room. Consciousness: impulses attract eye of consciousness in small room. 2. Motivational Instincts and the Unconscious Instincts originate in the body and exert pressure with the aim of being satisfied through interaction with an object. Three main Freudian instincts: sex, death, and ego preservation. 3. Satisfying Unconscious Impulses Through jokes and through manifest and latent dream content.

D. Unconscious Motivation 4. Current Trends Automatic processes: behaviors carried out with little awareness.

E. Internal Sources of Motivation 1. Drive concept Mechanism: Woodworth's idea of how we do something. Drive: stimulus that induced behavior and keeps it going. 2. Psychological Needs Inherent characteristic that indicates a psychological deficit. Primary or viscerogenic: Murray's physiological needs. Secondary or psychogenic: Murray's 22 psychological needs. 3. Current Trends More needs postulated, which may be hierarchically arranged.

F. Commonality among Instincts, Drives, and Needs All refer to internal sources of motivation that demand satisfaction.

G. Environmental Sources of Motivation Incentives: stimuli that attract or repel an individual. Tolman &Honzik experiment: reward decreases, nonreward increases maze errors.

H. Environmental and Internal Sources Induce Behavior Motivation depends on internal and external sources 1. Warden’s Incentive-Drive Link Incentive (water) links with drive (thirst) to motivate behavior. Increased drive increases electrified grid crossings. Delayed incentive decreases electrified grid crossings. 2. Lewin’s Field Theory Psychological force: motivation depends on valence of objects in life space, psychological tension, and psychological distance.

II. Brief History of Emotion Historically, description of emotion shifted from outward to inward movement. A. Emotion as Subjective Feeling Personal feelings of affect that arise in consciousness B. Basic Emotions Early Greeks to Descartes to James considered basic emotions. Cognitive interpretations of stimulus changes determine emotions. C. Emotion as Impulses for Action and Thought Action readiness: impulse to action of emotion-relevant behavior. Motor explosion: nonadaptive response, e.g., jump for joy. D. Physiological Arousal It serves as the basis for feelings and action readiness for emotions. E. Facial Expression As indicator of emotional feelings. As signals used to satisfy social motives. Facial feedback hypothesis: pattern of facial muscles is informational basis for emotional feelings.