 We have been considering ways in which we interpret the meaning of an utterance in terms of what the speaker intended to convey.  However, we have not yet considered the fact that we usually know how the speaker intends us to take what is said.  In other words, we can usually recognize the type of ‘action’ performed by a speaker with the utterance.

 We use the term speech act to describe actions such as:  Requesting  Commanding  Questioning  Informing A speech act is the action performed by a speaker with an utterance.

Declarations: are those kinds of speech acts that change the world via their utterance. As in the following examples, the speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration properly. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife. Referee: You’re out!

Representatives: are those kinds of speech acts that state the speaker believes to be the case or not. Statements of fact, assertions, conclusions and descriptions as in the following examples. The earth is flat. Chomsky didn’t write about peanuts.

 Questions  Utterances which are used to get the hearer to provide information  Is she your sister?  You look tired.

 Directives:  are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to get someone else to do something. They express what the speaker wants. They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions and they can either be positive or negative.  Give me a cup of coffee. Make it black.  Don’t touch that.

 Commissives:  are those kinds of speech acts that speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats, refusals, and pledges. They can be performed by the speaker alone, or by the speaker as a member of the group.  I’ll be back.  We will not do that.  I’m going to get it right next time.

 Declarative sentences……..  Interrogative sentences…….  Imperative sentences……….  Direct & indirect speech acts.  (refer to in-class notes, the book, in-class worksheet, and assignment)

…to be more polite! ‘Could you open that door for me?’ is more gentle and more polite than saying ‘Open that door for me’.

In general, it has to do with ideas like being tactful, modest and nice to other people. Linguistic politeness deals with the concept of ‘face’.  Your face, in pragmatics, is your public self-image. This is the emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize.  Politeness can be defined as showing awareness of and consideration for another person’s face.

 If you say something that represents a threat to another person’s self-image, that is called a face- threatening act.  Example: Give me that paper! Here, you are behaving as if you have more social power than the other person.  Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another’s face, it can be described as a face-saving act.  Could you pass me that paper? (indirect speech act) This removes the assumption of social power.

 Negative face: is the need to be independent and free from imposition.  (I'm sorry to bother you I know you are busy but if you are free tonight we’re having a small gathering…)  Positive face: the need to be connected, belong and be a member of the group.  (we have the same problem, lets do this together…)