Age Peculiarities Of Emotional Behavior

Motor Development in Infancy and Childhood 2 months – able to lift head up on his own 3 months – can roll over 4 months – can sit propped up without falling over 6 months – is able to sit up without support 7 months – begins to stand while holding on to things for support

Motor Development in Infancy and Childhood 9 months – can begin to walk, still using support 10 months – is able to momentarily stand on her own without support 11 months – can stand alone with more confidence 12 months – begin walking alone without support

Motor Development in Infancy and Childhood 14 months – can walk backward without support 17 months – can walk up steps with little or no support 18 months – able to manipulate objects with feet while walking, such as kicking a ball

Cognitive Development in Children Probably the most cited theory in the cognitive development in children is Jean Piaget (1896-1980). As with all stage theories, Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development maintains that children go through specific stages as their intellect and ability to see relationships matures. These stages are completed in a fixed order with all children, even those in other countries. The age range, however can vary from child to child.

Sensitive Period Many theorists agree that the changes that constitute development are produced by the interaction of genetic endowment and environmental factors. An important concept on which many psychologists agree is the concept of Critical or Sensitive Period. By this, it is meant that what is important at one stage in life may not be so at some later point. That is, sensitive period means that there are certain periods in development during which certain important events will have an impact that they would not have with the same strength at earlier or later times.

Maturation Some aspects of the orderly progression of development are determined by maturation, which genetically programmed and is independent of specific environmental conditions. An example is walking. This and other early sensory and motor achievements seem to be relatively unaffected by specific practice. On the other hand, more general kinds of experience, such as sensory deprivation and sensory enrichment, seem to exert important effects.

Cognitive development The study of cognitive development is concerned with how the quality of thought process improves with experience and maturity. The central theorist on this is Jean Piaget. In his theory, cognition develops as the child applies assimilation and accommodation to existing schemes, and the do so by passing through the same sequence of developmental stages.

Sensory Motor Stage The first stage in this theory is the Sensory Motor Stage, which lasts from birth until about two years of age. Infants are subjective and unaware of any existence other than their own. The infant fails to distinguish between the self and no self, (out of sight out of mind). The infant can’t conceive of an object’s existence once it is no longer immediately perceptible.

Objects Permanence Towards the end of this stage the infant develops Objects Permanence, Sensory­-Motor Schemas and acquires Mental Representations. This is achieved through the acquisition of new mental imagery that allows them to imagine the existence of objects not directly perceptible. The selves are distinguished from reality, which becomes separate from their own action.

Pre-operational stage The second stage is the pre-operational stage, which lasts till about six or seven. Children are capable of representational thoughts but lack mental operation that order and organize these thoughts. They cannot, for example distinguish or recognize that another person might view reality differently if situated at a different point. (left & Right) Characteristic deficits at this stage includes inability to conserve number and quantity, (Lack of Conservation Ability), and Egocentrism, an inability to take another person’s perspective. Until the age of six the child also fails the task of Class Inclusion because of deficient logic at this stage.

Concrete operational thinking At approximately seven years of age, the child enters the Concrete operational stage, marked by the onset of logical thinking. This enables the child to solve correctly all the cognitive tasks that he or she fails at earlier stage. They are no longer egocentric. They are able to recognize that their view of reality is one of many other views. However, the child can now solve problems similar to that of class inclusion and conservation, but they cannot think abstractly.

Formal operational thinking At approximately eleven or twelve, the Formal operational stage starts, where abstract thinking is possible. Children can now consider hypothetical possibilities and became capable of scientific thinking. However, cognitive development affects the child’s understanding of the physical environment and social world as well. One aspect of the social world is moral reasoning and judgement. Piaget has also proposed a theory on moral development, but this has been further elaborated and expanded by L. Kohlberg.

The development of moral reasoning Based on the stage theory of cognitive development, Lawrence Kohlberg has developed a stage theory of moral development and moral reasoning. This theory describes three progressive levels of moral development, each level includes two stages.

Pre-conventional morality Stage (I): Moral reasoning is governed by punishment orientation-obey rule to avoid punishment. Stage (II): Reward orientation- conforms to obtain rewards.

Conventional level Stage (III): Good boy/good girl orientation- conforms to avoid disapproval. Stage(IV): Authority orientation: rigid codes, rules, and duties define this stage.

Post-conventional level Stage (V): This stage is defined by social contract. Generally, actions are guided by principles commonly agreed on as important to the public good and welfare. Respect of the self comes from respects of others. Stage (VI): This stage is oriented to ethical principles and is based on abstract thinking. Actions guided by self-chosen ethical principles, which usually stress justice, dignity, and equality.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning Level One: Pre-conventional Morality Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation Level Two: Conventional Morality Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation Level Three: Post-Conventional Morality Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle Orientation

Psychosocial development Theories of psychosocial development are represented by the work of Bowlby, (1973) in his theory of attachment, and the work of Erikson, (1976) in his theory of psychosocial development.

Attachment Attachment is generally defined as the emotional bond that develops between the infant and the caregiver, providing infants with emotional security. Many theories have been developed to explain how attachment develops. The Behaviorist emphasizes the Drive-Reduction and Operant conditioning hypotheses. However, the hypothesis is weakened by evidence indicating that infants may form relationships not only with mothers who feeds them, but also with many things that provide feelings of warmth and security. However, an alternative theory by J. Bowlby proposed continuity and expansion of attachment development. This development is presented in four stages or phases.

Stage (I)- Birth to 6 Weeks: This is called the indiscriminate social responsiveness phase. The baby seems to respond to anyone (human). Action represented in afterbirth reflexes. Stage (II)- (6 weeks to 7 months): This is called the discriminate social responsiveness phase. Babies start to smile and to respond to their parents, but they will not protest if they were left alone.

Stage (III)- (7 months to about 2 years): This is called the specific attachment phase. Children start to recognize their mothers. They are able to create a mental representation of the mother (object permanence). Children of this age may show separation anxiety. Stage (VI)- (From about 2 years old): This the phase of forming reciprocal relationship. Now children begin to use language to express their needs, to understand the feelings of others (not egocentric after the preoperational stage), and able to form mutual relationships.

Development of attachment However, the development of attachment, and its disturbance or losses plays a significant role in the formation of psychological well-beings and maladjustment. Secured attachment is associated with adaptive behavior, social competence independence, and persistence in problem solving. Insecure attachment may lead to mistrust, avoidance behavior, craving for attention, seeking constant approval, and other emotional disturbances. Many of these issues are covered and clarified in Eriksson’s theory of psychosocial development that is summarized below

Erikson theory of psychosocial development In this theory, each stage of development is dominated by a particular developmental task reflecting a conflict between a person’s needs and societies need. That conflict must be resolved before the person can proceed to the next stage.

Stage (1): TRUST versus Mistrust: Infancy (0-18 mos) This conflict dominates during the first year of life. Here the concept of TRUST resembles secured attachment. Constant and reliable care that makes the infant feel secured, and feels that parents could be trusted. MISTRUST or insecure attachment may lead to suspiciousness, frustration, and difficulties in forming relationships.

Stage (2): AUTONOMY versus DOUBTS: Toddlerhood (18-36 mos) Autonomy refers to the feeling of Self-Control and self-determination. It is encouraged when the child starts to exercise some control over their action. Encouragement fosters independence, self-sufficiency and self-esteem. If parents did not grant them autonomy, children will feel incompetent, become doubt, and will describe themselves (self-concept) negatively. Restrictions promote self-doubt and low self-esteem.

Stage (3): INITIATIVE versus GUILT: Early Childhood (3-6 yrs) This occurs at the play stage (preschool). To initiate constructive activities simply for the sake of being active. Again, parental attitudes, encouraging. or discouraging, can make children feel inadequate or guilt if the child initiates activity that the adult consider as shameful. Child initiates activities and developments a sense of responsibility. This is the stage when also children start to develop Gender Identity (The inner experience of being a male or female), and Gender Role (a socially prescribed patterns of behavior and attitudes for male and females. Over-control stunts child's spontaneity and sociability; promotes guilt and fear.

Stage (4): INDUSTRY versus INFERIORITY: Middle/Late Childhood (6-12 years) This occurs at school age. Children want to learn the skill valued by adults and the society in order to gain recognition. These include various skills of adults. Success with peers and parents leads to pride and social competence. Successful will lead to the feelings of competence and production, while receiving negative response and critics will lead to inferiority. Failure with peers and parents leads to inferiority and inadequacy.

Stage (5): IDENTITY versus CONFUSION: Adolescence This conflict occurs during adolescence. Constructing personal identity is the major task of adolescence. Adolescent tries on different roles and develops a stable self-definition and commitment to adult goals. Children start to develop a sense of their own individuality. Inability to resolve these questions may lead to identity crisis and role confusion. Adolescent does not experiment (through apathy or demands from others) becomes confused about self and future roles.

Stage (6): INTIMACY versus ISOLATION: Young Adulthood This is the conflict of EARLY ADULTHOOD. The major task facing young adults is the development of intimacy. Lasting and meaningful relationships promote connectedness and intimacy. It is the ability to commit oneself to a close relationship that demand sacrifices. The negative impact of this conflict is isolation. Fear of rejection or narcissism inhibits intimate relationships leading to isolation.

Stage (7): GENERATIVITY versus SELF-ABSORPTION: Middle Adulthood This occurs at middle adulthood. Generativity refers to the concerns over future generations, which may results in feelings of satisfaction. Unselfish concern for the next generation is manifested in work, community activities and child-rearing. Self-absorption or stagnation is the lack of concerns over future generation, which may’ results in self-dissatisfaction and emptiness. Self-indulgence and self-absorption promote boredom, stagnation and failure.

Stage (8): EGO-INTEGRITY versus DESPAIR: Late Adulthood This is the conflict of late adulthood Ego integrity refers to the sense of wholeness and meaningfulness of one’s life. Those who resolve this conflict will accept themselves as they are and believe in their dignity. Older adult looks back on a meaningful and satisfying life. Those who don’t resolve this conflict will fall into despair fear of death and wish to live their life again. Older adult looks back with disappointment, dissatisfaction and regret.

Parenting Styles Baumrind has described three basic parenting styles: authoritarian, authoritative and permissive. Other psychologists have differentiated between two permissive styles (indulgent and ignoring). These four diverge along two dimensions: Control of their children’s behavior Responsiveness to their children’s feelings and needs

Authoritarian parents Authoritarian parents set strict rules that are to be obeyed without question. The child is not consulted or considered in setting or implementing the rules Children raised with this style are likely to be fearful, irritable, moody, unhappy, unspontaneous and socially withdrawn.

Permissive-Indulgent parents Permissive-Indulgent parents do not set or enforce clear and consistent rules. Children are more cheerful but also aggressive, immature, and impulsive It is interesting that both INDULGENCE AND AUTHORITARIAN PARENTS have children who tend to display little self-reliance and may have problems with aggression.

Authoritative parents Authoritative parents set and enforce clear and consistent rules, but do so in consideration of the child's needs. The rules are based on reasons that are discussed with the child. Exceptions might be made, again with good reason. They are also warm and supportive. Children are cheerful, energetic, friendly, and socially competent. They also get the best grades of any of the three groups.

Permissive-Neglecting parents Permissive-Neglecting parents: are more concerned with their own activities and are uninvolved in their children. Their children tend to be: Impulsive; uninterested in school, and lack long-terms goals. Extremely Neglecting parents have children who show clear disturbances in their a attachment relationships and psychological functioning.

Permissive-indulgent   PARENTING STYLES LOW CONTROL HIGH CONTRL LOW RESPONSIVENESS Permissive-indifferent (Neglecting) Authoritarian HIGH RESPONSIVENESS Permissive-indulgent Authoritative

Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development are, like other stage theories, completed in a predetermined sequence and can result in either successful completion or a healthy personality or can result in failure, leading to an unhealthy personality. During each stage, an unsuccessful completion means that a child becomes fixated on that particular erogenous zone and either over– or under-indulges once he or she becomes an adult.

Oral Stage (Birth to 18 months) During the oral stage, the child if focused on oral pleasures (sucking). Too much or too little gratification can result in an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which is evidenced by a preoccupation with oral activities. This type of personality may have a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, over eat, or bite his or her nails. Personality wise, these individuals may become overly dependent upon others, gullible, and perpetual followers. On the other hand, they may also fight these urges and develop pessimism and aggression toward others.

Anal Stage (18 months to three years) The child’s focus of pleasure in this stage is on eliminating and retaining feces. Through society’s pressure, mainly via parents, the child has to learn to control anal stimulation. In terms of personality, after effects of an anal fixation during this stage can result in an obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive). On the opposite end of the spectrum, they may become messy and disorganized (anal expulsive).

Phallic Stage (ages three to six) The pleasure zone switches to the genitals. Freud believed that during this stage boy develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother. Because of this, he becomes rivals with his father and sees him as competition for the mother’s affection. During this time, boys also develop a fear that their father will punish them for these feelings, such as by castrating them. This group of feelings is known as Oedipus Complex ( after the Greek Mythology figure who accidentally killed his father and married his mother).

Latency Stage (age six to puberty) It’s during this stage that sexual urges remain repressed and children interact and play mostly with same sex peers.

Genital Stage (puberty on) The final stage of psychosexual development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once again awakened. Through the lessons learned during the previous stages, adolescents direct their sexual urges onto opposite sex peers, with the primary focus of pleasure is the genitals.

Freud's Structural and Topographical Models of Personality