Cross Cultural Psychology: Introduction Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos 14 May 2009

Course Outline Introduction Cross-Cultural research methods Culture and: Development Cognition Perception Language Social Interactions, Gender, and Emotions Intercultural Relations Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Overview Psychology Culture Cross-Cultural Psychology Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Psychology Psychology: Scientific study of human behavior and mental functions Scientific Study: Systematic, objective methods of observing behavior and mental functioning Behavior: Activity that can be observed, recorded, and measured Mental Functions: Infer from observable behavior Areas of Study: Perception, Cognition, Development, Emotion, Personality, Motivation, Interpersonal relationships Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Psychology Psychology: Study of behavior and mental processes Assumption: People are similar across cultures Hypothesize factors within cultures that influence mental processes Anthropology: Study of human beings in all places and at all times Cultural Anthropology: Systematic comparison of different cultures Assumption: People are different across cultures Needs Assessment: Studies that determine and address gaps between current conditions and desired conditions Assess local opinions about development and aid projects Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Psychology Purpose of Psychology: Understand, explain, predict, and control behavior Observe human behavior Response time Frequency of behaviors Performance on cognitive tasks Self-report on questionnaires Develop hypothetical constructs that explain patterns of performance in human behavior Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Research Studies Psychological Construct: Hypothetical concept created to explain common patterns of behavior across participants Unobservable Independent and dependent variables in psychological studies Researcher has to develop ways of manipulating and measuring the variables Participants: Those who participate in the study Population vs. Sample In most psychological studies, participants are not variables in studies In cross-cultural psychology studies, the culture of a participant may be an independent variable Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Research Studies When reporting the method of a research study, address three questions: What? What are the independent and dependent variables in the study? These variables are not directly observable How? How were the independent and dependent variables measured? Since the key variables are not observable, how did the researcher measure or manipulate them? Who? Who were the people that participated in the study? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Psychology Deterministic: One variable completely determines another Guarantee Probabilistic: One variable increases the probability of another Substantial number of variables that influence each outcome Free will Psychology is probabilistic Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Culture Culture: Shared way of life of a group of people Culture: Shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs, and affective understanding learned through the process of socialization Culture is NOT: Artifacts, tools, or other tangible cultural elements Culture IS: How members of the cultural group interpret, use, and perceive the objects Culture consists of: Values, beliefs, attitudes, interpretations, and perspectives that distinguish one group of people from another Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Culture Culture is manifested by: Symbols: Communication or object that carries a particular meaning within a group Heros: People who possess characteristics highly prized in a culture Rituals: Social activities that are socially essential Values: Preferences of a specific state of affairs to others (e.g., good-bad) Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Characteristics of Culture Culture is: An adaptive mechanism Learned Cultures change Rate of cultural change differs by culture Cultural diffusion: Cultural practices pass to a different culture People tend to be unaware of their cultural practices Ethnocentrism: Judging another culture in terms o one’s own culture Culture defines acceptable behavior patterns Cultures do not currently exist in isolation Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Dimensions of Culture: Hofstede Model (Hofstede, 2001) Power Distance: Extent to which less powerful members accept that power is unequally distributed Uncertainty Avoidance: Tolerance for ambiguity Individualism vs. Collectivism: Degree to which people are integrated into groups Masculinity vs. Femininity: Distribution of values between the genders Long-term vs. Short-term orientation: Choice of focus for people’s efforts to the future, present, or past http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~culture/hoftstede.htm Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Power Distance Small Power Distance Large Power Distance Parents and children are equals Older people not respected or feared Student-centered education Subordinates expect to be consulted Parents teach children obedience Older people are respected and feared Teacher-centered education Subordinates expect to be told what to do Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Uncertainty Avoidance Weak Uncertainty Avoidance Strong Uncertainty Avoidance Uncertainty in life is accepted Lower stress Higher scores on well-being Comfortable with ambiguity and chaos Uncertainty is felt as a threat to be fought High stress Lower scores on well-being Need for clarity and structure Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Individualism and Collectivism Everyone is expected to only take care of themselves and immediate family Right of privacy Speaking one’s mind is healthy Others classified as individuals Purpose of education is to learn how to learn Task prevails over relationship Everyone is expected to protect extended families Stress on belonging Harmony is always maintained Others classified as in-group or out-group Purpose of education is learning how to do Relationship prevails over task Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Feminine and Masculine Femininity Masculinity Minimum emotional and social role differentiation between genders Men and women should be modest and caring Balance between family and work Sympathy for the weak Both mothers and fathers deal with facts and feelings Both boys and girls may cry but neither should fight Mothers decide on family size Maximum emotional and social role differentiation between genders Men should be assertive and ambitious Work prevails over family Admiration for the strong Fathers deal with facts, mothers deal with feelings Girls cry, boys fight back Fathers decide on family size Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Short and Long-Term Orientation Short-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation Most important events in life occurred in past or take place now Immediate need gratification expected Children should learn tolerance and respect Social spending and consumption Stres on short-term profits Most important events in life will occur in the future Need gratification deferred until later Children should learn to be thrifty Saving, investing Stress on future market position Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Cross-Cultural Psychology Cross-Cultural Psychology: Systematic comparison of psychological variables under different cultural conditions in order to: Identify universal aspects of human thought and behavior Identify how culture influences human thought and behavior Key Question: How does culture influence human behavior and mental processes? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Cross-Cultural Psychology (Berry, Poortinga, Segall, & Dasen, 2002) Cross-cultural psychology is the study of: Similarities and differences in individual psychological functioning in various cultural and ethnocultural groups The relationships between psychological variables and socio-cultural, ecological, and biological variables The ongoing changes in psychological, socio-cultural, ecological, and biological variables Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Goals of Cross-Cultural Psychology Test the generality of psychological knowledge and theories Discover cultural and psychological variations in non-Western cultures Integrate results of general and specific psychological findings to a universal psychology that is valid for a broad range of cultures Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Perspectives in Cross-Cultural Psychology Absolutism: All psychological variables are the same in all cultures Assess constructs using the same methods and instruments across cultures Relativism: All psychological constructs are culturally influenced No comparisons can be made between cultures Universalism: All psychological variables are common between cultures but culture influences the development and manifestation of psychological characteristics Comparisons can be made cautiously, but with modifications to methods and instruments to make them culturally meaningful. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Perspectives in Cross-Cultural Psychology (Berry et al., 2002) Absolutist Universalist Relativist Context-free definition of concepts Almost always Difficult to achieve Usually impossible Context-free measurement of constructs Usually possible Often impossible Impossible Assessment of constructs Standardized instruments Adapted instruments Local instruments Comparisons between culture Straight-forward, Evaluative Controlled, Non-evaluative Usually avoided, Non-evaluative Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Ecological Influences Ecological Context Ecological Influences Genetic Transmission Observable Behaviors And Psychological Constructs Biological Adaptation And Cultural Adaptation Cultural Transmission Socio-Political Context Acculturation Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Contributions of Cross-Cultural Research to Psychology Knowledge: Findings of similarities and differences of behavior and mental functioning have added to the body of psychological knowledge Critical Thinking: Psychological findings are now analyzed to determine whether similar results will be found in different cultures Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Cross-Cultural Psychology Because of cross-cultural research, the following assumptions now must be made: All behavior is learned and occurs in a cultural context Culture must be accounted for in psychological theories More understanding of cultural influences on behavior is necessary, which may change the way behavior is studied Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Cross-Cultural Psychology Modern Psychology Cultural-Historical Psychology Mental processes and behavior are independent from the context Purpose of psychology is to isolate mental processes from the context through controlled experiments Context influences mental processes and behavior Purpose of psychology is to understand how the mind and culture mutually influence each other Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Progression of Cross-Cultural Research Beginning: Document differences between cultures Currently: Determine the cultural variables that produce the differences Culture is replaced with specific, measurable psychological variables hypothesized to account for cultural differences Future: Universal theories of psychological processes Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Psychology in Nigeria What psychological variables are not relevant to the Nigerian context? What psychological variables should be studied that are unique to the Nigerian context? What are practical problems in Nigerian society that culturally-relevant psychological research can address? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

Revision What is psychology? What is culture? What are the five key ways that cultures can vary? What is the purpose of cross-cultural research? What are the different perspectives that are taken in cross-cultural psychology? What contributions have cross-cultural research made to the field of psychology? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos