Chapter 1 The School As A Social System © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Chapter 1: The School as a Social System What is Organizational Theory? A set of interrelated concepts, assumptions, and generalizations that describes and explains patterns of behavior in organizations. Elements of Theory: Concepts Generalizations Assumptions Purposes of Theory: Provide an explanation of how things generally work. Guide research Guide practice Hypotheses: Conjectural statements that explain relationships. Use to test theories. Guide research Scientific Knowledge: Propositions supported by systematic research. Purpose of Science: To test theory and to provide reliable explanation. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Theoretical System Concepts Generalizations Assumptions Concepts Variables Variables Hypotheses Empirical Testing Principles © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Rational-Systems Perspective: A Machine Model Scientific Management (The Beginning) Rational-Systems Perspective (A Contemporary View of Scientific Management) Goals--Organizations exist to attain collective goals Division of Labor for efficiency Specialization for expertise Standardization for routine performance Formalization for uniformity and coordination Hierarchy for unity of command and coordination Span of Control for effective supervision Exception Principle to free superiors from routine Coordination for administrative effectiveness Formal Organization is the official blueprint of the structure that guarantees efficiency and effectiveness. The formal organization is the key to organizational effectiveness. Frederick Taylor-Scientific Management Time and Motion Studies Standardization Exception Principle Division of Labor Span of Control Henri Fayol-Functions of Administration Planning Organizing Commanding Coordinating Controlling Luther Gulick--Functions of the Executive POSDCoRB © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Natural-Systems Perspective: An Organic Model Human Relations (The Beginning) Mary Parker Follet Taylor antagonist and human relations advocate Hawthorne Studies •Illumination Studies--three studies •Elton Mayo--more studies(1927-32) •Hawthorne Effect Informal Organization •Norms •Grapevine •Informal leaders •Cliques Informal Norms “No Squealing” “No rate busting” “No chiseling” “Be a regular guy” Contemporary Natural System (Human Resources View) •Survival--organizations are more than instruments for goal attainment; they are social groups that adapt and survive. •Individuals are more important than the structure. •Needs motivate performance more than role demands . •Specialization can promote boredom and frustration. •Formalization produces rigidity and rule fixation. •Informal Norms not formal rules are critical to performance. •Hierarchy is ineffective because it usually neglects talent. •Span of Control is dysfunctional because it fosters close and authoritarian supervision. •Informal Communication is more efficient and open than formal communication. •Informal Organization--informal structures are more important than formal ones just as informal leaders are more influential than formal ones. The informal organization is the key to effectiveness. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Open-systems Perspective: An Integration Social Science: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies Max Weber Theory of Bureaucracy Chester Barnard Functions of the Executive Herbert Simon Administrative Behavior Talcott Parson Social Systems Theory Interdependence is a fact of organizational life. All organizations are open systems whose parts interact and depend on each other and are dependent on their environments. Integration is central to an open-systems perspective. Integration of goals and needs Behavior is a function of structure and needs. Integration of rational and natural elements All organization have both rational and natural aspects. Integration of tight and loose couplings Organizations need both tight and loose couplings. Integration of planned and unplanned activities Politics pervades organizational life. Integration of formal and informal. Organizations have two interactive faces: Formal & Informal. Contingency Theory Effectiveness is contingent upon matching There is no one best way to organize, motivate, the situation with the appropriate technique. decide, lead, or communicate-- “it depends.” © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Key Properties of Open Systems Inputs -- people, materials, and resources from the outside Transformation -- the process transforming inputs into something of value by the system. Outputs -- the byproduct of the transformation. Feedback -- how the system communicates to its parts and the environment. Boundaries -- systems are differentiated from their environments. Environment -- is anything outside the system. Homeostatis -- a steady state of equilibrium Entropy -- the tendency for all systems for run down and die. Equifinality --the same end can be achieved many ways. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Open System with Feedback Loops Environment Throughput [Transformation] Inputs Outputs People Performance Materials Products Finances Services Feedback © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Social Systems Model: Key Assumptions Social systems are open systems. Social systems consists of interdependent parts, which interact with each other and the environment. Social systems are goal oriented. Social systems are peopled. Social systems have structure. Social systems are political. Social systems have cultures. Social systems have norms. Social systems are conceptual and relative. All formal organizations are social systems, but not all social systems are organizations. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Key Elements of the School as a Social System Schools are social systems with the following key parts: Structure: roles are expectations of positions that are arranged in a hierarchy. Individual: the individual is a key unit in any social system; regardless of position, people bring with them individual needs, beliefs, and a cognitive understandings of the job. Culture: represents the unwritten feeling part of the organizations: its shared values Politics: informal power relations that develop spontaneously. Core: the teaching-learning process is the technical core of schools. Environment: everything outside the organization; source of inputs. Outputs: the products of the organizations, e. g. educated students. Feedback: communication that monitors behavior. Effectiveness: the congruence between expected and actual outcomes. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Internal Elements of the System Environment Transformation Process Structural System (Bureaucratic Expectations) Learning Teaching Cultural System (Shared Orientations) Political System (Power Relations) Inputs Outputs Teaching Learning Individual System (Cognition and Motivation) © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Social System Model for Schools Environment Inputs Transformation Process Outputs Environmental constraints Human and capital resources Mission and board policy Materials and methods Structural System (Bureaucratic Expectations) Achievement Job satisfaction Absenteeism Dropout rate Overall quality Learning Teaching Cultural System (Shared Orientations) Political System (Power Relations) Learning Teaching Individual System (Cognition and Motivation) Discrepancy between Actual and Expected Performance © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

A Brief History of Organizational Thought: Pioneers, Concepts, and Principles STRUCTURAL PERSPECTIVE HISTORICAL ROOTS CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT RATIONAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE (1900-1930) (Focus: Organizational Goals) (Focus: Formal Organization, Rationality, and Efficiency) STRUCTURE IS CENTRAL PIONEERS: Taylor Fayol Gulick Urwick KEY CONCEPTS: . Goals . Division of Labor . Specialization . Standardization . Formalization . Hierarchy of Authority . Narrow Span of Control . Control . Rationality . Formal Organization KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES: 1. Organizations exist primarily to accomplish their goals. 2. Division of labor leads to specialization. 3. Specialization promotes expertise. 4. Standardization of tasks produces efficiency. 5. Formalization of activities improves efficiency. 6. Hierarchy promotes disciplined compliance. 7. A narrow span of control improves supervision. 8. Administrative control is essential for efficiency. 9. Rationality in decision making promotes efficiency. 10. Formal organization can be designed to maximize efficiency. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

HUMAN RESOURSES PERSPECTIVE HISTORICAL ROOTS CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES (1930-1960) HUMAN RELATIONS NATURAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE (Focus: Individual Need) (Focus: Informal Organization, Organizational Culture, and Natural Groupings) THE INDIVIDUAL AND INFORMAL ORGANIZATION PIONEERS: Follet Mayo Rothlisberger McGregor KEY CONCEPTS: . Survival . Needs . Individuals . Social Structure . Informal Norms . Empowerment . Broad Span of Control . Culture . Teams . Informal Organization KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES: 1. Organizations are primarily social groups adapting and surviving. 2. Individual needs are the primary motivators of organizational performance. 3. Individuals are more important than structure in achieving effectiveness. 4. Individuals organize themselves informally on basis of interests. 5. Unofficial norms and procedures are often more important than formal ones. 6. Shared decision making promotes effectiveness. 7. A broad span of control enhances teacher autonomy and effectiveness. 8. Organizational culture mediates the effects of structure. 9. Teamwork is the key to organizational success. 10. Informal structures are more important than formal ones. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

CONTEMPORARY OPEN-SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE (1960-present) HISTORICAL ROOTS CONTEMPORARY SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVES SOCIAL SCIENCE OPEN SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE (Focus: Integration) (Focus: Interdependence, Integration, and Contingencies) INTEGRATION OF FORMAL AND INFORMAL--CONTINGENCIES PIONEERS: Weber Barnard Simon Parsons Weick Katz & Kahn KEY CONCEPTS: . Interdependence of the organization and its environment . Integration of organizational goals and human needs of rational and natural features of tight and loose couplings of planned and unplanned activities of formal and informal perspectives . Contingency Theory KEY ASSUMPTIONS AND PRINCIPLES: 1. All organizations are open systems that interact with their environment. 2. Organizational behavior is a function of the interaction of organizational structure and individual needs. 3. All organizations have both rational and natural features. 4. Organizations need both loose and tight couplings to succeed. 5. Politics pervades organizational life. 6. Organizations have two interactive faces: a formal and an informal. 7. There is no one best way to organize, to motivate, to decide, to lead, or to communicate; the effectiveness of such processes is contingent upon a variety of circumstances. © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

The Triadic Relations of Theory, Practice, and Research Theory, research, and practice are in a dynamic relationship. Each set of relationships is reciprocal: theory guides practice, but practice reinforces, refines, or disconfirms theory; theory guides research, but research creates and refines theory; and research guides practice, but practice directs research. T R P © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003

Theory into Practice Applications Name the people who have formal authority over teachers in your school? What are their formal positions? How much authority do they have and how do they exert it? Give specific examples. Describe the division of labor and specialization in your school. Is there a narrow or broad span of control? How much autonomy do teachers have to make their own decisions? How would you characterize the formal organization of your school? Name the people who have informal authority but no formal authority? Where do they get their influence? What are the important informal norms in your school? How do the formal and informal leaders interact? Do they cooperate or compete? Give some examples. How much conflict exists between the formal and informal? Give examples of conflict. Describe the grapevine. How would you characterize the informal organizations of your school? © Hoy, 2008, © Hoy 2003