Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc. Slide 1 Chapter 1 Organization of the Body

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 2 Science and Society Science involves logical inquiry based on experimentation (Figure 1-1) Science involves logical inquiry based on experimentation (Figure 1-1)  Hypothesis—idea or principle to be tested in experiments  Experiment—series of tests of a hypothesis; a controlled experiment eliminates biases or outside influences

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 3 Scientific Method

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 4 Science and Society Theory—a hypothesis that has been proven by experiments to have a high degree of confidence Theory—a hypothesis that has been proven by experiments to have a high degree of confidence Law—a theory that has an unusually high level of confidence Law—a theory that has an unusually high level of confidence The process of science is active and changing as new experiments add new knowledge The process of science is active and changing as new experiments add new knowledge

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 5 Science and Society Science is affected by culture and culture is affected by society Science is affected by culture and culture is affected by society

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 6 Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy and physiology are branches of biology concerned with the form and functions of the body Anatomy and physiology are branches of biology concerned with the form and functions of the body Anatomy—science of the structure of an organism and the relationship of its parts Anatomy—science of the structure of an organism and the relationship of its parts

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 7 Anatomy and Physiology Gross anatomy—study of the body and its parts using only the naked eye (Figure 1-2) Gross anatomy—study of the body and its parts using only the naked eye (Figure 1-2) Microscopic anatomy—study of body parts using a microscope Microscopic anatomy—study of body parts using a microscope  Cytology—study of cells  Histology—study of tissues

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 8 Anatomy and Physiology Developmental anatomy—study of human growth and development Developmental anatomy—study of human growth and development Pathological anatomy—study of diseased body structures Pathological anatomy—study of diseased body structures Systemic anatomy—study of the body by systems Systemic anatomy—study of the body by systems

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 9 Anatomy and Physiology Physiology—science of the functions of organisms; subdivisions named according to Physiology—science of the functions of organisms; subdivisions named according to  Organism involved—human or plant physiology  Organizational level—molecular or cellular physiology  Systemic function—respiratory, neurovascular, or cardiovascular physiology

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 10 Language of Science and Medicine Scientific terms are often based on Latin or Greek word parts Scientific terms are often based on Latin or Greek word parts Terminology tool is provided in pull-out section near the front of this textbook Terminology tool is provided in pull-out section near the front of this textbook

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 11 Language of Science and Medicine Terminologia anatomica Terminologia anatomica  Official list of anatomical terms  Terms listed in Latin, English, and by number  Avoids use of eponyms (terms based on a person’s name) Physiology terms do not have an official list but follow the same principles as Terminologia Anatomica Physiology terms do not have an official list but follow the same principles as Terminologia Anatomica

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 12 Characteristics of Life A single criterion may be adequate to describe life, as in following examples: A single criterion may be adequate to describe life, as in following examples:  Autopoiesis—living organisms are self-organized and self-maintaining  Cell theory—if it is made of one or more cells, it is alive

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 13 Characteristics of Life  Responsiveness  Conductivity  Growth  Respiration  Digestion  Absorption  Secretion  Excretion  Circulation  Reproduction Characteristics of life considered most important in humans:

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 14 Characteristics of Life Metabolism—sum total of all physical and chemical reactions occurring in the living body Metabolism—sum total of all physical and chemical reactions occurring in the living body

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 15 Levels of Organization within the body

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 16 Levels of Organization (Figure 1-3) Chemical level—basis for life Chemical level—basis for life  Organization of chemical structures separates living material from nonliving material  Organization of atoms, molecules, and macromolecules results in living matter—a gel called cytoplasm

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 17 Levels of Organization Organelle level Organelle level  Chemical structures organized to form organelles that perform individual functions  It is the functions of the organelles that allow the cell to live  Dozens of organelles have been identified, including the following: Mitochondria Mitochondria Golgi apparatus Golgi apparatus Endoplasmic reticulum Endoplasmic reticulum

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 18 Levels of Organization Cellular level Cellular level  Cells—smallest and most numerous units that possess and exhibit characteristics of life  Cell—nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm within a limiting membrane  Cells differentiate to perform unique functions

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 19 Levels of Organization Tissue level Tissue level  Tissue—an organization of similar cells specialized to perform a certain function  Tissue cells surrounded by nonliving matrix  Four major tissue types: Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Connective tissue Muscle tissue Muscle tissue Nervous tissue Nervous tissue

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 20 Levels of Organization Organ level Organ level  Organ—organization of several different kinds of tissues to perform a special function  Organs represent discrete and functionally complex operational units  Each organ has a unique size, shape, appearance, and placement in the body

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 21 Levels of Organization System level System level  Systems—most complex organizational units of the body  System level involves varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged to perform complex functions (Table 1-1): Support and movement Support and movement Communication, control, and integration Communication, control, and integration Transportation and defense Transportation and defense Respiration, nutrition, and excretion Respiration, nutrition, and excretion Reproduction and development Reproduction and development

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 22 Levels of Organization Organism level Organism level  The living human organism is greater than the sum of its parts  All of the components interact to allow the human to survive and flourish

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 23 Anatomical Position (Figure 1-4) Reference position Reference position Body erect with arms at sides and palms forward Body erect with arms at sides and palms forward Head and feet pointing forward Head and feet pointing forward

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 24 Anatomical Position (Figure 1-4) Bilateral symmetry is a term meaning that right and left sides of body are mirror images Bilateral symmetry is a term meaning that right and left sides of body are mirror images  Bilateral symmetry confers balanced proportions  Remarkable correspondence of size and shape between body parts on opposite sides of the body  Ipsilateral structures are on the same side of the body in anatomical position  Contralateral structures are on opposite sides of the body in anatomical position

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 25 Body Cavities (Figure 1-5; Table 1-2) Ventral body cavity Ventral body cavity  Thoracic cavity Right and left pleural cavities Right and left pleural cavities Mediastinum Mediastinum  Abdominopelvic cavity Abdominal cavity Abdominal cavity Pelvic cavity Pelvic cavity

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 26 Body Cavities Dorsal body cavity Dorsal body cavity  Cranial cavity  Spinal cavity

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 27 Body Regions (Figure 1-6; Table 1-3) Axial subdivision Axial subdivision  Head  Neck  Torso, or trunk, and its subdivisions

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 28 Body Regions Appendicular subdivision Appendicular subdivision  Upper extremity and subdivisions  Lower extremity and subdivisions

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 29 Body Regions

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 30 Body Regions Abdominal regions (Figure 1-7) Abdominal regions (Figure 1-7)  Right hypochondriac region  Epigastric region  Left hypochondriac region  Right lumbar region  Umbilical region  Left lumbar region  Right iliac (inguinal) region  Hypogastric region  Left iliac (inguinal) region

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 31 Body Regions Abdominopelvic quadrants (Figure 1-8) Abdominopelvic quadrants (Figure 1-8)  Right upper quadrant  Left upper quadrant  Right lower quadrant  Left lower quadrant

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 32 Terms Used in Describing Body Structure Directional terms (Figure 1-9) Directional terms (Figure 1-9)  Superior – toward the head  Inferior- lower or below  Anterior (ventral) - front  Posterior (dorsal) - back  Medial – toward midline  Lateral – toward the side  Proximal – toward trunk  Distal – away from trunk  Superficial – near surface  Deep – farther from surface

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 33 Terms Used in Describing Body Structure

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 34 Terms Used in Describing Body Structure Terms related to organs Terms related to organs  Lumen (luminal) – hollow area of organ  Central – near the center  Peripheral – around the boundary  Medullary (medulla) – inner region  Cortical (cortex) – outer region  Apical (apex) – narrow tip of an organ  Basal (base) – base or widest part of organ Many directional terms are listed inside the front cover of the book Many directional terms are listed inside the front cover of the book

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 35 Body Planes and Sections (Figures 1-9 and 1-10) Planes are lines of orientation along which cuts or sections can be made to divide the body, or a body part, into smaller pieces Planes are lines of orientation along which cuts or sections can be made to divide the body, or a body part, into smaller pieces

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 36 Body Planes and Sections (Figures 1-9 and 1-10) There are three major planes, which lie at right angles to each other: There are three major planes, which lie at right angles to each other:  Sagittal plane runs front to back so that sections through this plane divide body (or body part) into right and left sides If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and left halves, the plane is called midsagittal or median sagittal If section divides body (or part) into symmetrical right and left halves, the plane is called midsagittal or median sagittal  Frontal (coronal) plane runs lengthwise (side to side) and divides body (or part) into anterior and posterior portions  Transverse (horizontal) plane is a “crosswise” plane—it divides body (or part) into upper and lower parts

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 37 Body Planes and Sections What plane is this section taken from?

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 38 Interaction of Structure and Function Complementarity of structure and function is an important and unifying concept in the study of anatomy and physiology Complementarity of structure and function is an important and unifying concept in the study of anatomy and physiology Anatomical structures often seem “designed” to perform specific functions because of their unique size, shape, form, or body location Anatomical structures often seem “designed” to perform specific functions because of their unique size, shape, form, or body location Understanding the interaction of structure and function assists in integration of otherwise isolated factual information Understanding the interaction of structure and function assists in integration of otherwise isolated factual information

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 39 Body Type and Disease (Figure 1-11) Somatotype—category of body build or physique Somatotype—category of body build or physique Endomorph—heavy, rounded physique with accumulation of fat Endomorph—heavy, rounded physique with accumulation of fat  “Apple-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fat in the waist than hip Waist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for men Waist-to-hip ratio >0.9 for women and >1.0 for men Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape” Higher risk for health problems than “pear shape”  “Pear-shaped” endomorph has more accumulation of fat in hips than in waist

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 40 Body Type and Disease (Figure 1-11) Mesomorph—muscular physique Mesomorph—muscular physique Ectomorph—thin, often fragile physique with little fat Ectomorph—thin, often fragile physique with little fat

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 41 Homeostasis (Figure 1-14) Term homeostasis coined by the American physiologist Walter B. Cannon Term homeostasis coined by the American physiologist Walter B. Cannon Homeostasis is the term used to describe the relatively constant states maintained by the body—internal environment around body cells remains constant Homeostasis is the term used to describe the relatively constant states maintained by the body—internal environment around body cells remains constant

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 42 Homeostasis (Figure 1-14)

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 43 Homeostasis (Figure 1-14) Body adjusts important variables from a normal “set point” in an acceptable or normal range Body adjusts important variables from a normal “set point” in an acceptable or normal range Examples of homeostasis: Examples of homeostasis:  Temperature regulation  Regulation of blood carbon dioxide level  Regulation of blood glucose level

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 44 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Devices for maintaining or restoring homeostasis by self-regulation through feedback control loops Devices for maintaining or restoring homeostasis by self-regulation through feedback control loops Basic components of control mechanisms Basic components of control mechanisms  Sensor mechanism—specific sensors detect and react to any changes from normal  Integrating, or control, center—information is analyzed and integrated, and then, if needed, a specific action is initiated  Effector mechanism—effectors directly influence controlled physiological variables  Feedback—process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 45 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Negative feedback control systems Negative feedback control systems  Are inhibitory  Stabilize physiological variables  Produce an action that is opposite to the change that activated the system  Are responsible for maintaining homeostasis  Are much more common than positive feedback control systems

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 46 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 47 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Positive feedback control systems Positive feedback control systems  Are stimulatory  Amplify or reinforce the change that is occurring  Tend to produce destabilizing effects and disrupt homeostasis  Bring specific body functions to swift completion Feed-forward occurs when information flows ahead to another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will follow Feed-forward occurs when information flows ahead to another process or feedback loop to trigger a change in anticipation of an event that will follow

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 48 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Positive Feedback Control -stretch receptors trigger pituitary to secrete oxytocin (OT) which stimulates stronger contractions of uterus, hence stimulating more OT to be released.

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 49 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Levels of control (Figure 1-15) Levels of control (Figure 1-15)  Intracellular control Regulation within cells Regulation within cells Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processes Genes or enzymes can regulate cell processes  Intrinsic control (autoregulation) Regulation within tissues or organs Regulation within tissues or organs May involve chemical signals May involve chemical signals May involve other “built-in” mechanisms May involve other “built-in” mechanisms  Extrinsic control Regulation from organ to organ Regulation from organ to organ May involve nerve signals May involve nerve signals May involve endocrine signals (hormones) May involve endocrine signals (hormones)

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 50 Structure and function of body undergo changes over the early years (developmental processes) and late years (aging processes) Structure and function of body undergo changes over the early years (developmental processes) and late years (aging processes) Infancy and old age are periods of time when the body functions least well Infancy and old age are periods of time when the body functions least well Cycle of Life: Life Span Considerations

Mosby items and derived items © 2007, 2003 by Mosby, Inc.Slide 51 Cycle of Life: Life Span Considerations Young adulthood is period of greatest homeostatic efficiency Young adulthood is period of greatest homeostatic efficiency Atrophy—term to describe the wasting effects of advancing age Atrophy—term to describe the wasting effects of advancing age