Chapter 10 Second Language acquisition What is SLA (second language acquisition)? new SLA is a new branch (1970s). acquired vs. learned Most second language is achieved by learning. SLA & LAD LAD (language acquisition device)  exposure ( an L2 environment)  acquisition (acquire the second language)

SLA (second language acquisition) It refers to any language acquired not as a mother tongue. e.g. Taiwanese students L1: Southern Min /Hakka /one of the Formosa languages L2: Mandarin (most literature on English learning in Taiwan refers to English as a second language) L3: English SLA ≈ LA (the early stage) At the early stage, the main methods of SLA essentially follow those on L1 studies: observations & experiments.

new term: interlanguage (Selinker, 1972) focus: SLA model ( L1 ) interlanguage ( L2 ) main issues: (a) internal device (b) input, process & output (c) individual difference in cognition (d) personalities (e) the difference between L1 & L2 acquisition (f) teaching environments & pedagogical theories

outline 1. universal grammar and SLA 2. the role of mother tone 3. input and output 4. individual difference 5. personalities and strategies 6. a comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition 7. types of teaching 8. teaching approaches 9. summary

1. Universal grammar & SLA SLA lies in the LAD & UG in the brain. 1.1 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) 1.2 Universal Grammar (UG) 1.3 LA (L1) &SLA (L2)

1.1 LAD (Language Acquisition Device) innate in the brain like other biological organs grow  get matured  fade away UG in the LAD LAD & LA / SLA LAD (language acquisition device)  exposure ( an L1 / L2 environment)  acquisition (acquire the language)

1.2 Universal Grammar (UG) There is Universal Grammar composed of universal principles & parameter settings in LAD. (1) universal principles the grammar unit of internal structure (2) parameter settings different parameter settings  different grammatical configurations

(1) universal principles the grammar unit of internal structure English: NP (noun phrase) + VP (verb phrase) Japanese: NP (noun phrase) + VP (verb phrase)

(2) parameter setting basis Different parameter settings give rise to different tree configurations.

different parameter settings  different tree configurations English: an SVO (subject + verb + object) language Japanese: an SOV (subject + object + verb) language

1. 3 LA (L1) & SLA (L2) L1: need not to learn (no grammar) UG  fluently (V) the universal grammar would help generate all the possible grammatical structure of that language in accordance with the parameter setting L2: need to learn (L1 grammar) L1 grammar  fluently (X)  accent most SLA learners fail to speak the target language fluently foreign accents: transfer of the first language

SLA studies If two grammars (L1 & L2) are put in a language acquisition device (LAD), what would happen? L1 grammar LAD ? L2 grammar

2. The role of mother tone Three theories in SLA Learners got a grammar of mother tongue interference of L1 grammar 2.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA) 2.2 Marked Differential Hypothesis (MDH) 2.3 Speech Learning Model (SLM)

SLA: difficult to acquire 2.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA) compare L1 & L2 It emphasizes the importance in comparing the first language (L1) with the second language (L2) and the knowledge of which structure appears in the target language but absent from the mother tongue. core idea A structure present in the target language (L2) but absent from the first language (L1) will be difficult for SLA learners. language L1 L2 structure X V SLA: difficult to acquire

these consonants are problematic for learners a support in phonetic contrast :[, , , t,  ,d, r, v] CAH prediction: Chinese students acquire English consonants [, , , t,  ,d, r, v] with more difficulties. languages consonants Chinese (L1) English (L2) [, , , t,  ,d, r, v] X V CAH prediction these consonants are problematic for learners

a support in phonology diphthong formation of five vowels [,  , a, ,  ]

AC (Assimilatory Constraint) Only vowels sharing with the same backness can constitute a diphthong. DC (Dissimilatory Constraint ) Vowels sharing the same backness are prohibited from forming a diphthong. language Mandarin Southern Min English constraint assimilation dissimilation prediction (V) easy (X) difficult (V)

Mandarin diphthongs The four Mandarin diphthongs are either [+ back] or [- back].

Southern Min diphthong Vowels with different value in backness are allowed for a Southern Min diphthong, which is different from the constraint of Mandarin diphthong structure.

CAH prediction Southern Min speakers vs. English  a problem with diphthongs [ou] & [ei] (violate the DC)  a deletion (deleting the less sonorant vowel) Southern Min speakers vs. boat [bout] & bought [bt] (X)

Can CAH explain all errors or difficulties. (X) e. g Can CAH explain all errors or difficulties? (X) e.g. *He teaches students must be patient. (by a Taiwanese student, a direct translation from Chinese: 他教學生必須有耐心) In structure: a. He who teaches students must be patient. b. He teaches students to be patient.

Error Analysis (EA) Corder (1964) Corder proposed that we had to collect and examine student’s errors before CA was applied to account for the possible errors. CA predictions (V & X) CA cannot always make correct predictions The tenet of EA It is to collect and sort out the error data that SLA students have made in the production of the target language.

EA & CA EA (to collect & examine the errors)  CA (to account for the possible errors) the procedure The procedure of error data collection (1) finding out the errors (2) pointing out why such errors emerge (3) sorting out the error data (4) trying to explain what causes errors to happen (5) evaluating the impact on SLA

EA (V) Errors are of patterns (the DC). e. g EA (V) Errors are of patterns (the DC). e.g. Taiwanese students’ difficulties: diphthongs [ou] (boat), [ei] (day), [ie] (yes) contribution: preventing students from fossilizing the errors EA (X) Errors can hardly be sorted. e.g. (X) *John taked Mary to the park yesterday. the error: taked the short knowledge of past tense (?) the spelling of take suffixed with -ed (?)

CA & EA (two sides of a coin) From the perspective of speech production (V) have contributions in SLA (V) always make correct predictions (V & X) e.g. the consonants [, , , t,  ,d, r, v] (X, absent from Chinese inventories) In CA, they are treated equally difficult, but which one is the most difficult to acquire? In EA, how many errors can constitute a pattern? How can teachers help prevent errors from happening in the class? To what extent can an error be?

2.2 Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) Any component of a grammar can be divided into two types: marked & unmarked. (1) marked: It refers to those sounds or syntactic structures appearing in fewer languages. (2) unmarked: It is the part shared with most languages. marked appear in fewer languages rare ones unmarked shared with most languages common ones

tai ‘to lead’, kai ‘to cover’) MDH rule: Between A and B, A is marked if A occurs then B occurs, while not vice versa. a linguistic data: [b, d, g] & [p, t, k] stops language [b, d, g] marked [p, t, k] unmarked English (bate, date, gate) (spy, stick, sky) Mandarin X (pai ‘to beat’, tai ‘to lead’, kai ‘to cover’)

MDH tenet: the unmarked components can be acquired with ease the marked components are acquired with difficulty []: this consonant is highly marked (it does not appear in most languages) MDH: [] > [, , , t, d, r, v] ([] is the most difficult one) CAH: [, , , t,  ,d, r, v] (equally difficult) components marked (rare ) unmarked (common) SLA difficult easy

[]: the lax front vowel [] of English is also marked []: the lax front vowel [] of English is also marked. (It is not one of the Cardinal vowels. It is not phonemic in most languages.) MDH: For English learners in Taiwan, [] is usually substituted with [e], resulting in the confusion between [] & [e] (get vs. gate). (unmarked ones  easy to be acquired) (the more marked  the more difficult to be acquired)

2.3 Speech Learning Model (SLM) perspective perception: SLM production: CA & EA 2 types (1) new sounds (X in L1) entirely absent from the inventories of the mother tongue (those ones absent from L1) (2) old sounds (= or ≈ in L1) identical with or similar to the sounds of the mother tongue (those ones similar or identical with L1)

a new sound: unfamiliar  judged new  put in a new category an old sound: familiar  pass the L1 filter (equivalence classification)  categorized into one of the mother tongue inventories

The Primary Idea of SLM The new sounds are difficult to acquire at first but can mastered at last, on the contrary, the old sounds, especially similar ones, are easy to be acquired at first but difficult to be mastered at last (Chung, 2006). sounds in the beginning at last new X V old new: difficult to be acquired in the beginning, but can be learned eventually old: easy to be acquired in the beginning, but difficult to be mastered eventually

difficult to be acquired Predictions: learning difficulties of CAH, MDH & SLM acquisition theory CAH MDH SLM difficult to be acquired new sounds marked sounds old sounds easy to be acquired unmarked sounds

, , , , , , ,  three predictions of a study on Taiwanese students’ acquisition of English fricatives & affricatives CAH: All the sounds of , , , , , , ,  are equally difficult because they are absent from Mandarin. MDH:   is the most difficult, because it is marked. SLM: , ,  can be mastered, while , , ,  cannot, because , , ,  are similar (old) sounds.

The Findings (1) most students are able to produce , , ,  well to such an extent that there is no significant difference between Taiwanese students and American natives (2) there is no significant difference between junior and senior high school students in terms of English fricative and affricate production The findings fall in the prediction of SLM.

3. Input and output SLA processing works in the model of ( Input ) interlanguage ( Output) 3.1 Input Hypothesis 3.2 Output Hypothesis 3.3 Interaction Hypothesis

3.1 Input Hypothesis Interlanguage (autonomous, independent) (1) A language system which is neither the first language nor of the second (target) language, but might share the specific properties of the first and the second language (the target language is not entirely captured or acquired). L1 ≠ interlanguage ≠ L2 (2) a stage children’s language is not clear enough to be comprehensible children’s language  ??? (3) an analogy L1 (orange juice) + L2 (grape juice) = ?

Input Hypothesis (1) mother tongue & input Any LA is in need of input Input Hypothesis (1) mother tongue & input Any LA is in need of input. Children acquire L1, mother tongue works as input. Parents usually provide children with simplified input. (2) one single manner for SLA The input should be comprehensible to the learners. incomprehensible input = unintelligible input  helpless (3) i + 1 (Krashen): SLA works i : the starting point of comprehensible input + 1: every class helps improve a little bit (i)  (+ 1): be comprehensible to learners

3.2 Output Hypothesis (1) background LA works in two ways: inputs & outputs. an input (comprehensible) ≠ an output (comprehensible) (2) the process The act of producing language (speaking or writing) constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the process of second language. (3) the output (speak out) The output is one of the important factors for a successful SLA. open the mouth & speak it out  SLA (V)

3.3 Interaction Hypothesis (1) Input + output Both input & output interact with each other in the whole process of SLA. (2) Negotiation (achieve the goal of i+1 ) comprehensible input (not necessarily) one may get the information by negotiation / discussion repetition + confirmation + clarification  a successful negotiation (3) input + output + input-output Each of inputs, output, and input-output interaction plays a certain role in SLA.

4. Individual difference Individual difference plays a role in SLA. In terms of personality individuals are of two types: (1) Field Independence (2) Field Dependence

4.1 Field Independence (1) characteristics sensible & calm good at logical reasoning pictures / reading materials  smaller components reading: fully devoted, ignoring what happens around (2) acquiring a second language (as mathematics) realize sentences can be constructed on the basic constituents vocabulary, categories & syntactic structure in no time.

(3) In different environments in traditional teaching & learning environment (V) good at grammar analysis & sentence structure in communicative approach environment (V) never discouraged happy with different activities in teaching devote themselves to the comprehension of the contexts

4.2 Field Dependence (1) characteristics (opposite to field independence) inclined to be distracted by activities around good at fast reading able to capture what is revealed in the text emphasize comprehension focus on the whole meaning of sentences / passage (2) acquiring a second language It seems that students of field independence are superior to those of field dependence in almost every respect save in SLA.

(3) in different learning environments field of independence (V) & field of dependence (V) In the SLA literature, both types have their own merits. proper environments Students of either type should be provided with proper teaching or learning environments. all learners  SLA (V) All the students are potentially able to acquire a good second language.

5. Personalities & Strategies Language acquisition is subject to individual differences. There are other personalities, each of which has much to do with SLA. 5.1 Personalities 5.2 Learning Strategies

5.1 Personalities unique Personalities are just like faces, every individual is unique. 4 categories in SLA studies, four have been categorized: (1) aptitude (2) attitude (3) motivation (4) empathy

(1) aptitude (age, talents & out-spoken) age the earlier of exposure, the better talent some are inclined for languages, some mathematics being out-spoken (V) energetic & open-minded  like to practice speaking / inclined to speak out whatever occurs to them  successful SLA (speaking, the first step) (X) uncomfortable to speak  spend a lot of time reading  superior in memorizing good essays  improve SLA

(2) Attitude positive attitude students with positive attitudes  find ways out to solve possible difficulties  better achievers in SLA relation of attitudes & SLA achievements The more positive attitude a learner has, the more chances for him to be successful in SLA.

motivation integrative instrument (3) Motivation (integrative & instrumental) motivation in SLA environment integrative (V) immigrated to the US (participate in the activities in the community) instrument (X) English teachers in Taiwan (put into use what they learn) high motivation  successful learners Whatever type of motivation it may be, students with high motivation are on a way to a successful learner of a second language.

(4) Empathy participate Empathy refers to the intention to participate (4) Empathy participate Empathy refers to the intention to participate. e.g. In an English conversation class, do you usually participate in the discussion? How many chances have you ever created yourself to practice in English? participate more, success more The more chances you get to participate, the more chances for you to become a successful learner.

5.2 Learning Strategies strategy Strategies refer to ways or approaches adopted in enhancing the ability of the second language. e. g. listening to the radio, watching TV programs, studying on language websites, reading books, newspapers, magazines & reading aloud production strategy imitate a certain person’s accent or way of speaking avoidance strategy we try to avoid using a structure foreign to us e.g. students avoid the use of relative clauses in writing

6. A comparison between L1 & l2 acquisition There are similarities and differences between L1 and L2 acquisition. 6.1 Similarities of L1 & L2 Acquisition 6.2 Differences of L1 & L2 Acquisition

6.1 Similarities of L1 & L2 Acquisition morphology, phonology & syntax There is no great difference between L1 & L2 acquisition in terms of morphology, phonology & syntax. e.g. developmental errors like went, goed & wented occur in both L1 & L2 acquisition

6.2 Differences in L1 & L2 Acquisition internal structure, environments, ways of acquisition (1) internal structure L1 (no grammar) there is no concrete grammar for L1 learners L2 (1 grammar) there is at least one grammar in their brains (interference with the L2 acquisition) CA  EA SLA studies began with contrastive analysis between L1 & L2. Then errors have been collected & sorted.

(2) environment L1(enough exposure) In L1 acquisition there is exposure enough for children to acquire that language. L2 (limited exposure) In the L2 environments, L2 are scarce & limited. e.g. in our acquisition of English It is found hard to expose ourselves to English speaking environments.

(3) way of acquisition L1 acquisition (no one fails) it emerges naturally (X) pay any attention to learning strategies (X) memorize vocabulary, grammatical structure, etc. L2 acquisition(only a few success) it takes a long time (V) a classroom, a teacher, a formal schedule & the like (V) pressure  anxiety & motivation where there is a goal of achieving, there is pressure. the pressure brings about anxiety, deters motivation

7. Types of teaching In terms of exposure, there are two types of teaching environments: (1) total immersion & (2) partial immersion. 7.1 Total Immersion 7.2 Partial Immersion 7.3 Three Possibilities

7.1 total immersion all courses in L2 It refers to putting the learners into an environment in which all the courses are taught in the second language. e.g. some schools in Canada L2: English (36 hours per week). L1: French (the remaining school hours)

7.2 partial immersion part in L2 It refers to only in part of the classes the second language is spoken. two sub-types in Taiwan L1: Mandarin is the main language L2: English is taught as a foreign language (3-4 hours in English class  class language) morning L2 in the morning, L1 in other time afternoon L2 in the afternoon , L1 in the other time

7.3 three possibilities (1) All in English (rare) English teachers speak English from the beginning to the ending of the class. This kind of teaching is rare in actuality. (2) Mandarin-main & English-sub (85 %) Mandarin is the main language. But the teacher would sometimes ask students in simple English. This type accounts for more than 85% of all the English teachers. (3) English-textbooks English is only used when reading the textbooks.

8. Teaching approaches There have been different approaches or teaching techniques developed in the literature. 8.1 Grammar Translation Method 8.2 Audio-lingual Approach 8.3 Communicative Approach

8.1 Grammar Translation Method(GTM) the base contrastive analysis (translating L2  L1) the emphasis differences of L1 & L2 grammar the main target grammatical analysis (memorize vocabulary & sentence patterns) (pay attention to reading & writing)

characteristics teacher-centered In class it is teachers that teach all the time, leaving little space for students to practice what is taught. a lot of grammar a lot of grammatical knowledge instead of L2 itself (used to be popular, still adopted in some schools) a lot of work after class A lot of assignments or exercises are left to students.

8.2 Audio-lingual Approach the base (1) Linguistic structuralism & (2) psychological behaviorism (1) linguistic structuralism (a house & a language) building a house bricks  bricks combined together  walls  4 pieces of walls & a cover  a house acquiring a language phonemes (consonants / vowels )  syllables (e.g., tea [ti], see [si] )  words  words + syntactic structure  a sentence

(2) psychological behaviorism behaviorism: stimulus & response (no substantial meaning) learners first encounter sounds or phonetic symbols like [b]  (look & read) instructors ask the students to read [b] sound whenever they look at the symbol [b]  (built the relation) the stimulus (the symbol [b]) & the response (the reading of [b] sound)  (recognize) recognize that [b] is read [b] sound

the tenet (drill & practice / stimuli & responses) In Taiwan (in Audio-lingual Approach) (memorize K.K.) memorize the phonetic alphabet  (vocabulary) begin with vocabulary  (structure) basic sentence structure of English  (sentence) suitable words to suitable positions of a sentence the weak point (1) grammar & practice (???) grammatical terminologies  put them into practice (2) authentic (???) memorize a lot of sentence patterns  put into use

8.3 Communicative Approach (a concept , a philosophy) an approach of teaching (X) the main idea (linguistic competence) Learners are trained to get the linguistic competence. SLA should be put in the same environments as L1. e.g. L2: English learners : exposed to authentic English environments the purpose (communication) The target language is for the purpose of communication. to keep away from grammatical errors (X) (native speakers run into slip tongues, mistakes or errors) taught pattern by pattern (X) (not authentic.)

characteristics (1) contents > forms pay attention to contents but not forms emphasizing the ability to communicate start with mutual understanding by speaking & listening (2) learners based It is the learners that are concerned in the learning & teaching process. (learner’s personalities & attitudes begin to attract intention in the field of SLA) (teacher centered: GTM & Audio-lingual Approach)

Traditional teaching approaches grammar, vocabulary & pronunciation rules (the topmost important) clear & concrete learning goals for each class Communicative Approach grammatical structures, vocabulary & pragmatics (mixed & expressed in practical communication) teachers: good at organizing or creating authentic environments students: feel free in class & get encouragement by way of successful communication

a comparison

9. Summary 9.1 universal grammar and SLA 9.2 the role of mother tone 9.3 input and output 9.4 individual difference 9.5 personalities and strategies 9.6 a comparison between L1 & L2 acquisition 9.7 types of teaching 9.8 teaching approaches

9.1 universal grammar and SLA LAD( Language Acquisition Device) innate & biological (grow  matured  fade away) UG(Universal Grammar) universal principles & parameter settings in LAD SLA model ( L1 ) interlanguage ( L2 ) LA & SLA LA: acquire (grammar – X) SLA: learn (grammar – L1)

9.2 the role of mother tone (L1 interference) EA (Corder, 1964): collect & sort out error data CA & EA: two sides of a coin theory presenter types idea CAH Lado (1957) similar L1 = L2 / L1 ≈ L2 different L1 ≠ L2 MDH Eckman (1997) marked rare unmarked common SLM Flege (1981) new X in L1 old = to L1 / ≈ to L1

different predictions of learning difficulties theory SLA difficult easy CAH new sounds old sounds MDH marked sounds unmarked sounds SLM SLM: a foreign accent New sounds are easy to get but they are hard to be mastered. Old sounds make a second language sound with a foreign accent.

9.3 input and output SLA model Input interlanguge Output three hypotheses (1) Input Hypothesis the input: be comprehensible to the learners the acquisition process : i + 1 i : the beginning point +1: a little improvement in acquisition

(2) Output Hypothesis the output: an input (comprehensible) ≠ an output (comprehensible) the process: act of producing language (speaking or writing)  SLA (V) e.g. open the mouth & speak out (3) The Input-Output Interaction Hypothesis the interaction: input + output + input-output negotiation: repetition + confirmation + clarification communication: problems & questions  OK (no worry about the comprehensibility of input)

9.4 individual difference individual personalities are of two types (1) field independence good at logical reasoning language as mathematics sentences: vocabulary, categories, syntactic structure (2) field dependence good at fast reading emphasize comprehension focus on the whole meaning of sentences / passage

9. 5 personalities and strategies unique Personalities are like faces 9.5 personalities and strategies unique Personalities are like faces. 4 factors for a successful SLA (1) aptitude age, talents & out-spoken (2) attitude more positive  more successful SLA (3) motivation integrative & instrument (4) empathy participate more  success more in SLA

9.6 a comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition (1) L1 acquisition ≈ L2 acquisition no great difference in morphology, phonology & syntax (2) L1 acquisition ≠ L2 acquisition internal structure L1 (no grammar) vs. L2 (L1 grammar) environments L1 (enough exposure) vs. L2 (limited exposure) ways of acquisition L1 (emerges naturally) vs. L2 (takes a long time) L1 (no one fails) vs. L2 (few learners success)

9.7 types of teaching In terms of exposure, there are two types of teaching environments. (1) total immersion all the courses are taught in L2 (2) partial immersion only part of the classes in L2 3 possibilities In Taiwan in English Mandarin-main & English-sub in Mandarin rare 85 % textbooks ( English)

9.8 teaching approaches There have been different approaches or teaching techniques developed in the literature, e.g. Grammar Translation method, Audio-lingual Approach & Communicative Approach. approach the base the focus the core idea GT Method contrastive analysis translating L2  L1 differences of L1 & L2 grammar grammatical analysis Audio-lingual Approach linguistic structuralism & psychological behaviorism drill & practice stimuli & responses drill part of habits Communicative Approach communication authentic language authentic environment  linguistic competence

Thank you for your listening!!!