Chapter 1 Major Themes of Anatomy & Physiology Form and Function Origins of Biomedical Science Scientific Method Human Origins and Adaptations Human Structure Human Function Language of Medicine

Anatomy - The Study of Form Observation of surface structure Cadaver dissection is cutting & separation of organs to study their relationships Comparative anatomy is the study of more than one species to analyze evolutionary trends Physical examination palpation, auscultation, percussion Gross anatomy is what is visible with naked eye Histology is examination of cells with microscope Ana=apart + tom=cut Manipulation and examination of the reproductive tract of cattle via rectal palpation is possible because of several anatomical features of the cow: 1) As in other species, the reproductive tract of the bovine is suspended from the dorsal body wall by the broad ligament. The posterior part of the tract (vagina, cervix and, sometimes part of the uterus) is located in the pelvic cavity (formed by the two pelvic bones) and the anterior part of the tract hangs over the pelvic brim (uterus, oviduct, ovaries and, sometimes part of the cervix) and is suspended in the abdominal cavity. Moreover, the tract is located immediately below the rectum. 2) The rectum of the cow is large enough to allow insertion of the hand and arm of the palpator. Moreover, the rectal wall is sufficiently pliable to allow one to grasp and reproductive tract structures through the rectal wall. 3) The rectal wall of the cow is strong so that tearing, while possible, is rare. Note the situation is different in other species, notably the mare, where the rectal wall is more subject to damage. Nonetheless, care should be taken when performing rectal palpation of cattle because the rectum can be torn or otherwise damaged. Features of the Reproductive Tract Ascertained by Rectal Palpation Cervix The cervix can be grasped and manipulated to insert an artificial insemination pipette or embryo flush catheter through the rings of the cervix and into the uterus. The cervix is also sometimes used to pull the reproductive tract further into the pelvic cavity during palpation so as to make palpation of ovarian and uterine structures easier. Uterus The uterus can be palpated to get a rough estimate of endocrine status of the cow. Cows under the influence of estrogen have a uterus with "tone" where the uterus feels turgid and muscular. Cows under the influence of progesterone may have a more flaccid-feeling uterus. A very small uterus can be an indication that a cow is reproductively quiescent or sterile. After calving, the uterus can be palpated to determine involution (return of the uterus to a pre-pregnant condition; i.e., ready for breeding). The major criteria are size (reduction in size of uterine horns and a return of the horns to a more uniform size (i.e., the horn previously containing the fetus is no longer larger than the other horn), location in the body cavity (more forward into the pelvic cavity) and tone [less meaty" (i.e., large, soft and pliable) and more turgid]. During pregnancy (after ~ d 35-40), it is possible to palpate the presence of the conceptus by feeling for the "fetal slip". The fetal slip refers to the feel of the placental membranes moving through the fingers as the palpator first grasps the uterus and then lets it gradually slip through his fingers. Ultrasonic examination of the uterus can also result in visualization of the fetus. Ovaries Follicles can be felt as fluid-filled pliable structures. Note that only a fraction of the number of follicles actually present are usually detected by rectal palpation - ultrasound examination is required to detect all follicles on the ovary. The corpus luteum is a hard structure that often protrudes from the otherwise smooth curvature of the ovary. The best way to learn to identify ovarian structures is to practice using reproductive tracts obtained from a slaughterhouse. Cystic ovaries are readily identified by rectal palpation as very large ovaries (twice or more in normal size). Cysts are follicular structures that have grown very large in size (>2.5 cm) which persist for 10 or more days and which lead to inhibition of ovulation and nymphomania. Follicular cysts can be luteinized or not. Luteinized cysts (about 30% of cysts) have a thicker wall than nonluteinized cysts. Luteinized follicular cysts can be confused with a fluid-filled corpus luteum which is a normal tructure that does not disrupt the estrous cycle. Uses of Rectal Palpation 1) artificial insemination 2) non-surgical recovery of embryos for subsequent embryo transfer 3) pregnancy diagnosis 4) postpartum reproductive exam to determine suitability of the animal for breeding and to estimate whether the cow is cyclic. 5) clinical diagnosis of cystic ovarian disease and uterine infections.

Early Anatomical Drawings On the left, medieval depicting pregnant woman with a fetus in the uterus and shows the heart lungs, arteries and digestive tracts On the right Andreas Vesalius’s 1543 book De Humani Corporis Fabricia

Physiology - The Study of Function Study of bodily functions by use of methods of experimental science Comparative physiology involves the study of different species Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures Anatomy is what shapes there are, Physiology is what those shapes do The first and only women's pole vault world champion, Stacy Dragila won the first-ever women's Olympic pole vault in 2000

Beginnings of Medicine Physicians in Mesopotamia & Egypt 3000 years ago used herbal drugs, salts & physical therapy Greek physician Hippocrates established a code of ethics & urged physicians to seek causes of disease Aristotle called causes for disease physiologi & said that complex structures are built from simpler parts Galen, physician to the Roman gladiators, saw science as a method of discovery did animal dissections since use of cadavers banned wrote book advising followers to trust their own observation Plato and Aristotle, from Raphael "School of Athens" (Fresco)

Birth of Modern Medicine Vesalius published accurate gross anatomy atlas (1543) Leeuwenhoek invented microscope to look at fabrics (1632-1723) Hooke (1665) and Zeiss (1860) developed & improved compound microscope (described plant cell walls in 1665) Schleiden & Schwann thought that all organisms were composed of cells -- cell theory of 1839 Clinical practice was in dismal state bleeding to remove toxins, operate with dirty hands, no anesthesia for amputations Even though Vesalius was backed by Kings such as Charles V, and Phillip II, he was still criticized by followers of Galen. It was only the protection of Royalty that kept the Spanish Inquisition from him.

Early Microscopes Remember Van Leewonhoek was not a scientist, he work with fabrics, and developed the microscope as a hobby. Hooke had difficulty corresponding to the Dutchman who tended to mumble.

Living in a Revolution Pioneers in 19th & 20th centuries established scientific way of thinking replaced superstition with natural laws momentous discoveries germ theory of disease heredity & structure of DNA Now at threshold of modern biomedical science technology enhanced diagnostic ability & life-support strategies genetic revolution --library of the molecular structure of every human gene is finished Gene therapy being used to treat disease

Scientific Method Bacon (1561-1626) and Descartes (1596-1650) were not scientists but did invent new habits of scientific thought scientific method as habits of disciplined creativity, careful observations, logical thinking & analysis of observations way of seeking trends & drawing generalizations Convinced governments of England & France to form academies of science that still exist today Scientific way of thinking based on assumptions & methods that are reliable, objective & testable

Making observations until capable of drawing generalizations and making predictions anatomy is a product of inductive method Proof in science can not go past “proved beyond reasonable doubt” reliable methods of observation tested and confirmed repeatedly not falsified by any credible observation In science, all truth is tentative Inductive Method

Hypothetico-Deductive Method Physiological knowledge gained by this method Ask a question and formulate a hypothesis -- an educated possible answer Good hypothesis consistent with what is already known capable of being tested and falsified with certain evidence If nothing could prove it wrong, it is not a scientific belief Hypotheses are written as If-Then predictions modified and rewritten after testing

Experimental Design Sufficient sample size to prevent chance event Control group and treatment group receive the same treatment except for the variable being tested Prevention of psychosomatic effects use of placebo in control group Experimenter bias prevented with double-blind study Statistical testing to be sure the difference between groups was not random, but was due to variable being tested Placebo: Latin for I shall please “Have your pirin” The bird cage Milgram Experiment Forcing the tester to hurt the subject.

Peer Review Critical evaluation by other experts in the field prior to funding verification and repeatability of results Ensures honesty, objectivity & quality in science

Health Minister Manto Tshabalala-Msimang of South Africa, known for putting vegetable remedies ahead of anti-retrovirals, endorses Dr Matthias Rath's vitamin treatments.

Dr. Rath and his cure for AIDS: Mega Doses of Vitamin C A doctor who worked with Nobel Prize winner Linus Pauling has taken the advocacy of vitamins into all-out war on the pharmaceutical companies Buys ad space in the NY Times, and fills them with editorials masked as facts Without getting confirmation of his studies is taking his cure to the people of Africa Problems: Too much Vitamin C can lead to Diarrhea which can kill an AIDS patient. Blames George Bush and Tony Blair for AIDS

Facts, Laws and Theories Scientific fact is information that can be independently verified by any trained person iron deficiency leads to anemia Law of nature is a description of the way matter and energy behave resulting from inductive reasoning & repeated observations written as verbal statements or mathematical formulae Theory is a summary of conclusions drawn from observable facts it provides explanations and predictions sliding filament theory of muscle contraction http://www4.dr-rath-foundation.org/

Logic is the anatomy of thought -John Locke Conditional arguments: the basis of hypothesis forming. Two parts Part 1: If p then q P = antecedent Q = Consequent Part 2 allows us to draw conclusions If P happens then Q happens (Modus Ponens If Q did not happen, P did not happen (Modus Tollens) Consider the following examples: If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. Chinua will miss the bus if he comes late. Chinua, if he arrives late, will miss the bus Note you can change the way its said For economy, we might shorten that to "If arrive late, then miss bus." In this case, p=arrive late, and q=miss bus. In other words, if the original conditional is true, we can draw the following valid conclusions: Chinua arrived late and therefore missed the bus; or Chinua did not miss the bus, and therefore he must not have arrived late. These two valid conditional arguments are expressed by the following paradigms: Example 1. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. And he does arrives late. Therefore, he misses the bus." This is a valid argument, because it fits one of the two forms for a valid conditional (in this case, modus ponens): If p (arrives late), then q (misses bus). P (arrives late) Therefore, Q (misses bus). Example 2. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. And he does miss the bus. Therefore, he must have arrived late." This is an invalid argument, because it does not fit one of the two valid forms. In a valid conditional, the second premise must be either p or not q. In this case, the second premise ("miss bus") would be q, so no valid conclusion can be drawn. We say this second premise "affirms the consequent," which is invalid. (This may sound like a good argument, but it is easy to see why it is not, because the conditional says nothing about what might happen when Chinua does not miss the bus. Perhaps he arrived on time, or perhaps he got there late and the bus was delayed--we have insufficient information to conclude anything.) Example 3. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. But he does not arrive late. Therefore, he did not miss the bus." This is an invalid argument, because it does not fit one of the two valid forms. In a valid conditional, the second premise must be either p or not q. In this case, the second premise ("not arrive late") would be not p, so no valid conclusion can be drawn. We say this second premise "negates the antecedent," which is invalid. (Again, this may sound like a good argument, but it is easy to see why it is not, because the conditional says nothing about what will happen if Chinua arrives on time. Perhaps he did catch the bus, perhaps he fell asleep and missed it anyway--we have insufficient information to conclude anything.) Example 4. "If Chinua arrives late, he will miss the bus. But he does not miss the bus. Therefore, he did not arrive late." This is a valid argument, because it fits one of the two valid forms (in this case, modus tollens): If p (arrives late), then q (misses bus). Not q (not miss bus). Therefore, not p (not arrive late). Note there can be problems with the original thing: If P then Q has to be a valid statement

There is a claim that lycopene, the reddish substance in tomatoes and peppers, is of value in protecting people from Alzheimer Disease. How would you, as a scientist, go about substantiating or refuting this suggestion?