© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–1 The Nature of Motivation MotivationMotivation The psychological forces acting on an individual that determine: The psychological forces acting on an individual that determine: Directionpossible behaviors the individual could engage in.Directionpossible behaviors the individual could engage in. Efforthow hard the individual will work.Efforthow hard the individual will work. Persistencewhether the individual will keep trying or give up.Persistencewhether the individual will keep trying or give up. Explains why people behave the way they do in organizations. Explains why people behave the way they do in organizations.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–2 Sources of Motivation Nature of the Organization Personal Characteristics Nature of the Job Individual Motivation

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–3 Expectancy Theory Motivation will be high when workers believe:Motivation will be high when workers believe: High levels of effort will lead to high performance. High levels of effort will lead to high performance. High performance will lead to the attainment of desired outcomes. High performance will lead to the attainment of desired outcomes. Major Factors of MotivationMajor Factors of Motivation Expectancythe belief that effort (input) will result in a certain level of performance. Expectancythe belief that effort (input) will result in a certain level of performance. Instrumentalitythe belief that performance results in the attainment of outcomes. Instrumentalitythe belief that performance results in the attainment of outcomes. Valencehow desirable each of the available outcomes from the job is to a person. Valencehow desirable each of the available outcomes from the job is to a person.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–4 Expectancy and Motivation Motivation is highest when expectancy, instrumentality, and valence levels are high.Motivation is highest when expectancy, instrumentality, and valence levels are high. If one of the values is low, motivation will be low: If one of the values is low, motivation will be low: Workers do not believe they can perform well.Workers do not believe they can perform well. Workers do not believe that performance and rewards are closely linked.Workers do not believe that performance and rewards are closely linked. Workers do not value the rewards offered for performance.Workers do not value the rewards offered for performance.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–5 Need Theories NeedNeed A requirement for survival and well-being. A requirement for survival and well-being. Need TheoriesNeed Theories Theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs. Theories of motivation that focus on what needs people are trying to satisfy at work and what outcomes will satisfy those needs. Basis premise is that people are motivated to obtain outcomes at work to satisfy their needs. Basis premise is that people are motivated to obtain outcomes at work to satisfy their needs. Managers must determine what needs a worker wants satisfied and ensure that a person receives the outcomes when performing well.Managers must determine what needs a worker wants satisfied and ensure that a person receives the outcomes when performing well.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–6 Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Table 9.1 Self-actualizationSelf-actualization Realize ones full potential full potential Realize ones full potential full potential Use abilities to the fullest Use abilities to the fullest EsteemEsteem Feel good about oneself Feel good about oneself Promotions and recognition and recognitionPromotions BelongingnessBelongingnessSocial interaction, love Social Interpersonal relations, parties Interpersonal SafetySafety Security, stability Job security, health insurance Job security, health insurance PhysiologicalPhysiological Food, water, shelter shelter Basic pay level to buy items Basic pay level to buy items NeedsDescriptionExamples Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs are addressed. Highest-level needs Lowest-level needs

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–7 Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction.Focuses on outcomes that lead to higher motivation and job satisfaction, and those outcomes that can prevent dissatisfaction. Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itselfautonomy, responsibility, interesting work. Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itselfautonomy, responsibility, interesting work. Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the workcomfortable work environment, pay, job security. Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the workcomfortable work environment, pay, job security. Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–8 McClellands Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power Need for AchievementNeed for Achievement A strong need to perform challenging tasks well and meet personal standards for excellence. A strong need to perform challenging tasks well and meet personal standards for excellence. Need for AffiliationNeed for Affiliation A concern for good interpersonal relations, being liked, and getting along. A concern for good interpersonal relations, being liked, and getting along. Need for PowerNeed for Power A desire to control or influence others. A desire to control or influence others.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–9 Adams Equity Theory Focuses on peoples perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in proportion to their work inputs.Focuses on peoples perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in proportion to their work inputs. A relative outcome to input ratio comparison to oneself or to another person (referent) perceived as similar to oneself. A relative outcome to input ratio comparison to oneself or to another person (referent) perceived as similar to oneself. Equity exists when a person perceives that their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referents ratio. Equity exists when a person perceives that their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referents ratio. If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give more inputs to achieve equity.If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also give more inputs to achieve equity.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–10 Goal Setting Theory Focuses on identifying the types of goals that are effective in producing high levels of motivation and explaining why goals have these effects.Focuses on identifying the types of goals that are effective in producing high levels of motivation and explaining why goals have these effects. Considers how managers can ensure that workers focus their inputs (efforts) in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational goals.Considers how managers can ensure that workers focus their inputs (efforts) in the direction of high performance and the achievement of organizational goals.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–11 Operant Conditioning Theory Operant ConditioningOperant Conditioning People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences. Linking specific behaviors to the attainment of specific outcomes can motivate high performance and prevent behaviors that detract from organizational effectiveness. Linking specific behaviors to the attainment of specific outcomes can motivate high performance and prevent behaviors that detract from organizational effectiveness.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–12 Operant Conditioning Tools Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement Getting desired outcomes for performing needed work behaviors. Getting desired outcomes for performing needed work behaviors. Positive reinforcers: pay, praises, or promotions.Positive reinforcers: pay, praises, or promotions. Negative ReinforcementNegative Reinforcement Eliminating undesired outcomes once the desired behavior occurs. Eliminating undesired outcomes once the desired behavior occurs. Negative reinforcers: criticisms, pay cuts, suspension.Negative reinforcers: criticisms, pay cuts, suspension. Is not the same as punishment.Is not the same as punishment.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–13 Operant Conditioning Tools (contd) ExtinctionExtinction Curtailing the performance of a dysfunctional behavior by eliminating whatever is reinforcing it. Curtailing the performance of a dysfunctional behavior by eliminating whatever is reinforcing it. Behavior is not rewarded and over time, the worker stops performing it.Behavior is not rewarded and over time, the worker stops performing it. PunishmentPunishment Administering an undesired/negative consequence to immediately stop a dysfunctional behavior. Administering an undesired/negative consequence to immediately stop a dysfunctional behavior. Manager administers an undesired consequence to worker (verbal reprimand, demotion, pay cut).Manager administers an undesired consequence to worker (verbal reprimand, demotion, pay cut).

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–14 Social Learning Theory A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by peoples thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other peoples behavior.A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by peoples thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other peoples behavior. Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning)Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning) When a learner is motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform and be rewarded. When a learner is motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform and be rewarded. People are motivated to imitate models who are highly competent, expert, receive attractive reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable.People are motivated to imitate models who are highly competent, expert, receive attractive reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable.

© Copyright 2004 McGraw-Hill. All rights reserved.9–15 Pay and Motivation Pay as a MotivatorPay as a Motivator Expectancy Expectancy Pay is an instrumentality (and outcome)Pay is an instrumentality (and outcome) Expectancy must be high for motivation to be high.Expectancy must be high for motivation to be high. Need Theory Need Theory Pay is used to satisfy many needs.Pay is used to satisfy many needs. Equity Theory Equity Theory Pay is given in proportion to inputs.Pay is given in proportion to inputs.