Middle Ages and Aquinas Ann T. Orlando March 28, 2007

Introduction N.B. Augustine writes Confessions c. 400; Aquinas writes Summa c. 1265; therefore Aquinas is slightly closer to our time than to Augustine’s time  Augustine is a man of the late Roman Empire  Aquinas is a man of Western Medieval Europe Very brief overview of Middle Ages Very brief overview of Western spiritual developments What is virtue Structure of Summa How to read the Summa

So what happened between 400 and 1200 German barbarian invasions; Rome sacked in 410; last Roman emperor in West abdicates in 476 (NB Roman Empire in East lasts until 1453) Church authority in West only educated authority; becomes de facto civil authority Rise Islam; Mohammed’s haj from Mecca to Medina in 622; Arab armies conquer all of southern Mediterranean and Spain by 700 Charlemagne’s grandfather, Charles Martel stops the Arabic army in southern France; Charlemagne creates ‘Europe;’ crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III 800 Invasions from the north: Vikings First Crusade called by Urban II in 1095 to combat the Seljuk Turks and to regain the Holy Land What happened: Roman northwestern provinces become Europe

Map of Roman Empire During Reign of Diocletian, 300

5 th Century Invasions

Rise of Islam 7 th C ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~rs143/map2.jpg

Charlemagne’s Empire 9 th C

Extent of Viking Conquests, c. 900 darkwing.uoregon.edu/%7Eatlas/europe/static/map16.html

Europe in 11 th C

Catholic Medieval Faith Importance of Incarnation; God in the world Importance of Mary and saints Importance of Jesus’ sacrifice on cross Importance of Mass as bloodless sacrifice Importance of making faith visible and understandable to everyone The Medieval Catholic imagination would be especially active two years ago when feast of Annunciation and Good Friday coincided

Monasticism: Cluny Charter for Foundation of Cluny, 910  Return to Benedict’s Rule; especially reading of Divine Office  But encouraged prayer and study over physical work  Established a series of daughter monasteries under the direction of the abbot of Cluny  While monks were poor, monasteries became wealthy  Encouraged development of visual arts in service of religion  Abbot Suger: ‘Man rises to God through beauty’

Monasticism: Citeaux Reform of Cluny: Cistercians  Founded by Robert Molesme at Citeaux 1099  Return to strict adherence to Benedict’s Rule; work equal with prayer and study  Each monastery independent; that is, each had its own abbot  More severe artistic style  Bernard of Clairvaux most famous Cistercian ( )  Modern day Trappists; Spencer, MA.

Spiritual Movements: New Orders Franciscans  Founded by St. Francis  Mendicants  Woman’s order; Poor Clares  Order recognized by Pope Innocent III Dominicans  Founded by St. Dominic  Order of Preachers  Woman’s order founded before men’s  Order commissioned by Innocent III

Universities Locus for learning: Universities  Grew out of Cathedral Schools  Training of diocesan clergy and civil administrators  Displaced monasteries as centers of learning  Development of the academic professional Most famous, Paris (Sorbonne); others include Oxford and Bologna Very international Universities and the Church were very ‘democratic’; any man with ability could rise very high Universities not independent of Church; rather universities prestigious centers for theological research and teaching  Aquinas and Bonaventure at Sorbonne at same time

Key Figures St. Anselm, ; Archbishop of Canterbury (after Norman invasion) St. Bernard, , Cistercian St. Dominic, , Dominican St. Francis, , Franciscan St. Bonaventure, , Franciscan St. Thomas Aquinas, , Dominican Note: all of these (except Francis) must deal with Augustine

Thomas Aquinas Angelic Doctor Developed systematic approach to theology using Aristotelian methods (Aristotle as the Philosopher in the Summa) Relied on newly available Greek works from Jewish and Moslem sources; Moses Maimonides, Averrhoes Very different from theological approach; Aristotelian rather than neo-Platonic  Emphasis on causes  Emphasis on categories Needed to show that his theological conclusions were consistent with Augustine; until he did so he was considered radical and suspect Two great works: Summa Theologica (theological) or Theologiae (theology); Summa Contra Gentiles But he also wrote beautiful songs, especially in praise of Eucharist (one of which we sing at Benediction, and another during Holy Thursday)

Example: Transubstantiation Relies on Aristotle’s The Categories  Philosophical idea of substance, accidents Substance: what things really are, their essence Accidents: how they appear to senses, properties that are incidental, weight, color, taste  Augustine has bad things to say about The Categories in Confessions (IV.28-31) According to Aquinas (and Catholic Church doctrine as defined at Lateran IV), Christ becomes fully present in the Eucharist when  the material substance of bread and wine is transformed into His own spiritual substance  only the accidents (color, texture, taste) of the bread and wine remain

Adoro Te Devote by Thomas Aquinas Godhead here in hiding, whom I do adore Masked by these bare shadows, shape and nothing more, See, Lord, at thy service low lies here a heart Lost, all lost in wonder at the God thou art. Seeing, touching, tasting are in thee deceived; How says trusty hearing? that shall be believed; What God's Son has told me, take for truth I do; Truth himself speaks truly or there's nothing true. From CCC translated by Gerard Manley Hopkins

Focus on Virtue Recall: Virtue is a Greek (pagan) philosophical concept; Plato, Aristotle; Epicurus; Zeno Virtue is NOT a Biblical concept  What about the Wisdom of Solomon (for example, 8:7 and the four cardinal virtues)?  Whose Bible is it in? Biblical ethics is following the way of God’s command  Psalm 1:1; Do not follow the way of the wicked, odoj  1 Cor 12:31; I will show you a still more excellent way, odoj  Acts 9:2; Earliest Christians called themselves followers of the Way, odoj

Marriage of Virtue and Biblical Ethics One of the most important examples of philosophy as the handmaid of theology Greek Jewish diaspora; Philo of Alexandria (1 st C AD) Justin Martyr and Clement of Alexandria (2 nd and 3 rd C)  Note exception is Tertullian when he said “What has Athens to do with Jerusalem” All great theologians of 4 th and 5 th C use virtue language Augustine’s definition of virtue (On Free Will, II.19) “Virtue is a good quality of the mind, by which we live rightly, of which no one can make bad use, which God works in us without us.” Compare to Aristotle’s Definition, (Nicomachean Ethics II.vi): Virtue, then, is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, i.e. the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it. Now it is a mean between two vices.

Reading Aquinas Thomas Aquinas on Virtue in the First Part of the Second Part (Ia IIae Q55) and Love in the Second Part of the Second Part (IIa IIae Q23) Summa Theologica highly structured  Divided into Three Parts; the Second Part further divided Part I and Part II  Each Part divided into Questions  Each Question divided into Articles  Each Article included a Statement, Objections and Replies Read the “on the contrary” and the “I answer that” section carefully; this starts the response to the Objections

Aquinas on Virtue and Love Virtue is a good habit (Ia IIae Q 55 a1, a3) Definition of virtue; note especially, and especially Reply to Objection 6 (Ia IIae Q 55 a3) Charity as friendship (IIa IIae Q23 a1) Charity as a movement of the soul toward God (IIa IIae Q23 a2,3) The importance of charity (IIa IIae Q23 a6,7) Pay special attention to which Patristic auhtor he quotes, what Scripture he uses

Also Read Ia Q1 a1 Very beginning of Summa Look carefully at Reply to Objection 2  You might notice that something that you have been taught, that everyone ‘knows’ is not true  Hint: think about Columbus (200 years after Aquinas)  But everyone knew ‘it’ long before Aquinas;