NS4016/NS4026 Final Year Project: Academic Writing Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary Regional Writing Centre

2 Workshop outline Motivation and time management Key consideration: –The writing process –The rhetorical situation Structuring your FYP Reporting the work of others Academic writing style Strategies to develop writing

Motivation and Time Management

Regional Writing Centre4 It is not too late Take stock of where you are now Outline your research Make plans based on the time that is left Organise your time accordingly Get writing Keep writing Allow time for revision and to put it all together Let family and friends know Be selfish with your time

Regional Writing Centre5 Where am I? What writing have you done for the research proposal, and what writing do you need to do in order to complete the proposal on time? Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes. Write in sentences. Do not edit or censor your writing. Private writing -- no one will read it. Discuss what you have written in pairs.

Regional Writing Centre6 Outlining (Murray, 2006) Title and draft introduction Level 1 outlining –Main headings Level 2 outlining –Sub-headings Level 3 outlining –Decide on content

Regional Writing Centre7 Writing goals OutlineWords/Timeframe Title Chapter 1 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) Chapter 2 (title) Section 1 (title) Section 2 (title) Section 3 (title) Chapter 3 … … …

Regional Writing Centre8 Keep writing Where and when do you write? Why are you not writing? –“I don’t feel ready to write.” –Writers’ block Getting unstuck –Writing to prompts/freewriting (write anything) –Set writing goals –Write regularly –Integrate writing into your thinking –Break it down into a manageable process

Regional Writing Centre9 Keep writing Be patient Be creative Taking pleasure in writing Be proud of your writing Get stuck in

Key Considerations

Regional Writing Centre11 Key stages in the process Planning Drafting Revision Editing and Proofreading

Regional Writing Centre12 The rhetorical situation Occasion Topic Audience Purpose Writer

Regional Writing Centre13 Key tasks for academic writers Participating in academic conversations Developing and advancing balanced arguments Exploring your personal writing process Developing strategies that work for you

Structuring your FYP

Regional Writing Centre15 Organising principles Thesis Research question Hypothesis

Regional Writing Centre16 Organising principles Unity Coherence Cohesion

Regional Writing Centre17 Flow Logical method of development Effective transition signals Good signposting Consistent point of view Conciseness (careful word choice) Clarity of expression Paragraph structure –Unity –Coherence

Regional Writing Centre18 Paragraph structure Chapters or sections are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way. Like chapter and section headings, paragraphs also signal the logically organised progression of ideas. Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence. A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed. It contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.

Regional Writing Centre19 Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by –Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions, –Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and –Argumentation based on the evidence presented. –Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument.

Regional Writing Centre20 Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence. Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or They can paraphrase the topic sentence.

Regional Writing Centre21 Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007, p.471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993).

Regional Writing Centre22 Paragraph structure: Unity Paragraphs should be unified. ‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue 1999, p.18).

Regional Writing Centre23 Paragraph structure: Coherence Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because –your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order –your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals –your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent –you have repeated or substituted key nouns. (Oshima and Hogue 2006, p.22)

Regional Writing Centre24 Example: (Meei-Fang et al. 2007, p.471) People with dementia are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition: they have a decreased ability to understand directions and to express their needs verbally, are easily distracted from eating, prone to become agitated, and may use utensils incorrectly. Inability to feed oneself (eating dependency) is a major risk factor for malnutrition among older people living in long-term care settings (Abbasi & Rudman 1994, Durnbaugh et al. 1996). When people with dementia can no longer take food voluntarily, assistance is required although, as the disease progresses, even taking food with assistance can become difficult and, in some instances, tube-feeding may be required to supply nutrition. This form of feeding can, however, cause distress and anxiety, not only for the person being fed, but also for caregivers (Akerlund & Norberg 1985, Burgener & Shimer 1993).

Regional Writing Centre25 Paragraph structure: Transition signals Transition signals do exactly what it says on the tin: they ‘signal’. They can signal relationships between sentences, just as they can signal relationships between paragraphs. Example: ‘Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession, who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives’ (Gillet 2008). The signal indicates the final point in a series of points.

Regional Writing Centre26 Paragraph structure: Transition signals To introduce an additional idea To introduce an opposite idea or contrast To introduce a choice or alternative To introduce an example To introduce and explanation To list To introduce a conclusion/summary To introduce a result

Regional Writing Centre27 Paragraph structure Dos and Don’ts Do not use pronouns to refer to an antecedent in the previous paragraph. Lengthy paragraphs indicate a lack of structure. Short paragraphs indicate a lack of detail or evidence to support the argument. Do not end a paragraph with a quotation. Use a variety of sentence patterns and lengths to give your paragraph a lively rhythm. Signpost your paragraph organisation.

Regional Writing Centre28 Sentence structure Vary your rhythm by using a variety of sentence types and patterns. Use a combination of –Simple sentences Compound sentences Complex sentences Compound-Complex sentences Do not limit yourself to simple sentences or linking sentences using “and”/”but”.

Reporting the work of others

Regional Writing Centre30 Reporting the work of others Making use of the ideas of other people is one of the most important aspects of academic writing because it shows awareness of other people’s work; it shows that you can use their ideas and findings; it shows you have read and understood the material you are reading; it shows where your contribution fits in; it supports the points you are making. (Gillet 2005)

Regional Writing Centre31 Reporting the work of others We report another author’s ideas by using paraphrase, summary, quotation and synthesis, and we use introductory phrases and reporting verbs to communicate our relationship to the ideas that we are reporting. Compare, for example: –Brown (1983, p.231) claims that a far more effective approach is... –Brown (1983, p.231) points out that a far more effective approach is... –A far more effective approach is... (Brown 1983, p.231)

Regional Writing Centre32 Paraphrasing ‘Paraphrasing is writing the ideas of another person in your own words. You need to change the words and the structure but keep the meaning the same’ (Gillet 2008).

Regional Writing Centre33 Paraphrasing Example: Original Text: Memory is the capacity for storing and retrieving information. Paraphrase: Memory is the facility for keeping and recovering data. (Gillet 2008)

Regional Writing Centre34 Summary ‘A summary is a shortened version of a text. It contains the main points in the text and is written in your own words. It is a mixture of reducing a long text to a short text and selecting relevant information. A good summary shows that you have understood the text’ (Gillet 2008).

Regional Writing Centre35 Summary Example: Original text: People whose professional activity lies in the field of politics are not, on the whole, conspicuous for their respect for factual accuracy. Summary: Politicians often lie. (Gillet 2008)

Regional Writing Centre36 Synthesis A synthesis is a combination, usually a shortened version, of several texts made into one. It contains the important points in the text and is written in your own words. To make a synthesis you need to find suitable sources, and then to select the relevant parts in those sources. You will then use your paraphrase and summary skills to write the information in your own words. The information from all the sources has to fit together into one continuous text. (Gillet 2008)

Regional Writing Centre37 Direct quotation The text quoted is sacrosanct. –Do not change spelling (i.e. American to British) or punctuation. –Do not correct spelling and punctuation. –Sic enclosed in square brackets, [sic], is inserted into the quote, after the error, to indicate to the reader that the error was not yours.

Regional Writing Centre38 Reporting the work of others Reporting the work of others: –Integral –Non-integral Language for reporting: Short quotations (quotations in text) Long quotations (block quotations) Omitting words […] Using the abbreviation et al. Secondary sources

Academic Writing Style

Regional Writing Centre40 Stylistic differences that mark academic writing Complexity Formality Objectivity Accuracy Precision Explicitness Hedging Responsibility (Gillet, 2008)

Regional Writing Centre41 Academic writing style Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain. Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research.

Regional Writing Centre42 Persuasion and truth in academic writing Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive. An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion. Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit. facts are distinguished from opinions. relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths. The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth.

Strategies to Develop Writing

Regional Writing Centre44 Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling Generate a list of –The most important features of academic writing –Criteria to make your writing-strategies more effective –The important conventions in your discipline –What is/is not acceptable in your discipline Student handbooks and guides for written submissions

Regional Writing Centre45 Getting started Create time and space for writing Freewriting Writing to prompts –“What writing have you done for this assignment, what writing would you like to do……” –“The aim of this assignment…” Experiment with different types of writing

Regional Writing Centre46 Writing time Dealing with issues of time Setting goals “Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray, 2005) Do I need a big block of time to write productively? “Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore, 2006:17) Outlining (Murray, 2005)

Regional Writing Centre47 R eg io na l W rit in g C en tr e 47 Dialogue as a social strategy Peer-review Generative writing The “writing sandwich” (Murray, 2005:85): writing, talking, writing Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore, 2006:102) –Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work.

Regional Writing Centre48 Resources Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL Using English for Academic Purposes The Writer’s Garden cyberlyber.com/writermain.htmhttp://www. cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm The OWL at Purdue The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill /wcweb/handouts/index.html /wcweb/handouts/index.html