Chapter 7 - Attitudes, Beliefs, and Consistency What Are Attitudes and Why Do People Have Them? How Attitudes Are Formed? Consistency Do Attitudes Really Predict Behavior? Beliefs and Believing This is an overview of the topics of the chapter. Before beginning the chapter there is a slide based on the chapter introduction that can be used to stimulate classroom discussion.

Attitudes and Beliefs Attitudes Global evaluations toward some object or issue Beliefs Information about something; facts or opinions

Attitude Attitude = one's evaluative orientation toward a person, thing, idea, etc. Do you like Shredded Wheat? Do you prefer lecture course or seminars? What's your favorite Friday evening activity? Is Seinfeld funny?

Three Parts of Attitudes Cognitive Our knowledge of the attitude target Affective Our feelings or beliefs toward the attitude target Behavioral Our intention to act toward the attitude target

Dual Attitudes Different evaluations of the same target Implicit attitude Automatic evaluative response Explicit attitude Conscious evaluative response

Dual Attitudes Some attitudes are not shared with others Stigma We may not be aware of all our own attitudes We may unconsciously dislike something we consciously like.

Measuring Attitudes Self-Report Measures Open Ended Scales Likert Scales Issues with Self-Report Reliability / Validity Assumes you know your attitudes Ambivalent Attitudes Self-Report Biases

Non-Verbal Measures Behavioral Measures – Overt behavior to infer attitude Physiological Measures – Arousal and muscle action Implicit Attitudes – Reaction time

Implicit Association Test (IAT) Measures implicit attitudes Those we are unwilling or unable to report Attitudes about stigmatized groups Stigma an attribute that is perceived by others as broadly negative Technology Tip: Students can take a sample IAT test – but caution them that the results may be a bit disconcerting. Alternatively, you may wish to access this site in class to illustrate the structure of the test. (https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/)

Why People Have Attitudes Attitudes help us deal with complex world Attitudes are evaluations (like or dislike) Initial evaluations are immediate and unconscious Attitudes are helpful in making choices Two Functions Object Appraisal Value-Expressive Teaching Tip: Students interested in the phenomenon of immediate evaluations can be directed to Malcolm Gladwell’s book Blink, in which he describes several examples of rapid initial evaluations. (http://www.gladwell.com/blink/index.html) Technology Tip: You may wish to reference the website “Rate My Professor” as an example of an additional means by which students form attitudes toward particular instructors (http://www.ratemyprofessors.com/index.jsp).

Attitude Formation Genetic Affective Cognitive Behavioral

Attitude Formation - Genetic Tesser (1993) believed that some attitudes are heritable. Some possibilities: Sensory Body Chemistry Intelligence

Attitude Formation - Affective Mere-exposure effect - Zajonc (1968) Repeated exposure increases liking for an object Exception - If you dislike something initially, repeated exposure will not change that attitude Mere-exposure effect the tendency for people to come to like things simply because they see or encounter them repeatedly. Technology Tip: Check out a demonstration of the mere exposure effect. (http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/mere_exposure.htm ) Technology Tip: Photographers have caught onto this phenomenon (mere-exposure effect and mirror image). Visit the website, “The Mere Exposure Effect: for advice on increasing portrait sales. (http://www.photo-seminars.com/Seminars/MereImage/Mere%20Image.htm)

Attitude Formation - Affective Classical Conditioning Can form both explicit and implicit attitudes Develop a positive attitude toward the conditioned stimulus Helps explain prejudiced attitudes Negative information in the media linked to social groups Advertisers link celebrities and products Classical Conditioning a type of learning in which, through repeated pairings, a neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response. Teaching Tip: To emphasize the way that classical conditioning can shape attitudes, ask students to recall the last time they were nauseous and vomiting. Then ask them to reflect on their attitudes toward whatever they ate or drank just before getting sick.

Attitude Formation - Affective Operant Conditioning Develop a positive attitude toward something being reinforced Social Learning Learn attitudes acceptable through observation (Bobo Dolls) Operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning) a type of learning in which people are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and less likely to repeat behaviors that have been punished. Social learning (observational learning, vicarious conditioning) a type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others rewarded for performing them, and less likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others punished for performing them.

Attitude Formation - Cognitive Evaluation of the merits of an object Polarization - Attitudes become more extreme as we think about them Especially true in strong initial attitude Evaluate evidence in a biased manner Accept evidence that confirms attitude Accept evidence from ingroup members Technology Tip: A host of television and print ads are available at the site “Best Ads on TV” (http://www.bestadsontv.com/main.php)

Attitude Formation - Behavioral Bem’s Self-Perception Theory At work when we don’t have a well-defined attitude “If I said it, it must be true” “If I ate it, I must like it” We are making an attribution about our behavior.

Commonalities in theories about consistency Specify conditions required for consistency and inconsistency Assume inconsistency is unpleasant Specify conditions required to restore consistency Technology Tip: Although the text does not detail the tripartite model of attitudes, if you wish to cover this model, Eugene Borgida presents a good visual depiction (http://www.psych.umn.edu/courses/spring06/borgidae/psy5202/images/tripartitemodel.jpg)

Person – Other Person – Attitude Object Relationships among P-O-X Balance Theory P-O-X Theory Person – Other Person – Attitude Object Relationships among P-O-X Unit relationships – Things that belong together Sentiment relationships – Liking or Disliking (Attitudes) Technology Tip: The full text of Heider’s article presenting balance theory is available at “Psych Classics” (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Heider/attitudes.htm).

Individuals prefer balanced to unbalanced Balance Theory Individuals prefer balanced to unbalanced Jim likes Sally (P + O) Jim is a vegetarian and dislikes eating meat (P - X); Jim believes Sally to dislike meat (O - X). What happens when Jim realizes Sally likes to eat meat?

+ + + - - + - - - - + + - - - + + - + + - - + + Balance Theory balanced (consistent) psychological states + + + - - + - - - - + + imbalanced (inconsistent) psychological states - - - + + - + + - - + +

When we are balance, there is not need to change. Balance Theory When we are balance, there is not need to change. “I don't like John. John has a dog. I don't like the dog either.” When we are unbalanced, we are motivated to change "I love my child. She made this ashtray. I hate the ashtray."

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive dissonance refers to unpleasant state when attitude and behavior are inconsistent If there is an inconsistency between thoughts, you will feel an unpleasant state of arousal (i.e., cognitive dissonance) as a result. Causes people to rationalize their behavior and bring their attitude into line with actions Festinger & Carlson (1959) Technology Tip: The full text of Festinger can Carlson’s classic article is available at “Psych Classics” (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/index.htm).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Festinger & Carlson (1959) Stage 1 First, participants were asked to twist wooden pegs placed in a board for 30 minutes. Second, participants were asked to put spools of thread on to pegs and take them off again for 30 minutes. Technology Tip: The full text of Festinger can Carlson’s classic article is available at “Psych Classics” (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/index.htm).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Stage 2 Participants were told that to test the effects of motivation in this study tell the next participant that the study was enjoyable and fun. Two experimental groups. Group A paid $1.00 for doing the “briefing”. Group B paid $20.00 for doing the “briefing”. Then, after they talked to the next participant, the participants were asked how they felt about the study. Technology Tip: The full text of Festinger can Carlson’s classic article is available at “Psych Classics” (http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Festinger/index.htm).

Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Results Step 1 Step 2 Payment Step 3 Evaluation of Task enjoyment All participants do the boring task, and then were asked to tell next participants about task. Group A, Lie Paid $1.00 23.5 Group B,Lie Paid $20.00 9.8 Group C, No lie No pay 5.9

Traditional models of decision making: Operant Conditioning Choices should be driven by future consequences, not past expenditures Operant Conditioning suggest the bigger the reinforcer, the more likely someone is to change their Attitude. Cognitive Dissonance theory/research shows that Attitudes are changed more when reinforcer is less.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Effort Justification Aronson & Mills, 1959 People seek to justify and rationalize any suffering or effort they have made Discussion Tip: After describing the study but before revealing the results, ask students to project the results as predicted by operant conditioning. Then reveal the actual results, and explain how such results resolve dissonance. Technology Tip: An accessible discussion of cognitive dissonance and real-life applications (including cult examples) are available at the “Skeptics Dictionary” (http://skepdic.com/cognitivedissonance.html)

Effort Justification Initiation rites: Aronson & Mills (1959) Three screening conditions Control (e.g. chair, table, sad, book) Mild (e.g. prostitute, virgin) Extreme (obscene words--sorry, I can’t put these up!) All participants then listen to sample tape of discussion group Discussion is horribly boring! (pre-tested) Dependent variable: expressed liking for the discussion group and desire to join

Example You and a companion plan to go skiing at a resort. You each have paid 100 dollars for lift tickets and rental. When you arrive, the conditions are horrible—it’s cold, icy, and even the best lifts are not operating because of the wind. In addition, you both feel lousy physically and out of sorts psychologically. Your companion turns to you and says, “It’s too bad that the money is not refundable, we’d have a much better time back home, relaxing in front of the fire. But I can’t afford to waste 100 dollars.” You agree. But you also both agree that it’s unlikely that you will have a better time struggling with the bad conditions on the slopes, compared to being inside. What do you do? Stay and ski, or go home?

Better day at home (minus 100 dollars) Paid 100 dollars for tickets and equipment (decrease in net assets by $100) Give up and go home Decision? Stay and ski Staying at home feels aversive, because of the sense that you have “wasted” the 100 dollars. However, the past expenditure is irrelevant to your decision, because it is a constant in both cases. Better day at home (minus 100 dollars) Lousy day skiing (minus 100 dollars)

Cognitive Dissonance Theory While people have desire to be consistent in their own private mind, they have stronger desire to be viewed consistent by others Self-presentation plays a role in cognitive dissonance

Consistency Drive for consistency Rooted in our biology Strengthened by learning and socialization Consistency involves both automatic and conscious parts of the mind

Do Attitudes Really Predict Behavior?

Attacking Attitudes Wicker (1969) argued against Allport and suggested we abandon the study of Attitudes. Review of attitude-behavior studies (approx 50 studies) Average correlation [r] = .30 % of variance in behavior explained = 9% (r2) Link between attitudes and behavior is weak. A – B Problem Inconsistency between attitude (A) and behavior (B) Technology Tip: An overview of research on the attitude-behavior relationship, and how it has changed over time, is available from Eugene Borgida (http://www.psych.umn.edu/courses/spring06/borgidae/psy5202/images/attitudebehavior%20relaitonship.pdf).

When do Attitudes predict behavior? Predictions of behavior based on attitudes is best when Measures of attitude are very specific Behaviors are aggregated over time and situations (not one situation) Attitudes are consciously prominent and influence thought regarding the choice (priming) Attitudes are easily accessible Technology Tip: A rather bizarre example of the failure of attitudes to predict behavior comes from the sketch comedy group Olde English. They first ask individuals how much money it would take for them to strangle a puppy. They then approach the individuals with a puppy and a blank check, but all refuse to comply. Preview this film before deciding whether to show it in your class (http://www.oldeenglish.org/podcast/Dead-Puppies).

What else influences Behavior Personality traits Ability Motivation Attitude Habit Needs Social pressure Other attitudes Behavior 37

Self-monitoring (Snyder & Swann, 1976) Examples Personality Self-monitoring (Snyder & Swann, 1976) Private self-consciousness (Scheier et al., 1978) Need for cognition (Cacioppo et al., 1986) 38

Self-monitoring (Snyder, 1974) Concern for social appropriateness Sensitive to self-presentation of others Used as guidelines for monitoring own self-presentation Two components of self-monitoring Interest in social information Ability to control self-presentation

Self-monitoring and attitude-behavior correlations High self-monitors have lower attitude-behavior correlations Their behavior is less reflective of their actual attitudes; more in line with what they think is socially appropriate