R EGIMES IN LDC S Less stable, more diverse compared to RDs Politics = conflict more likely to be violent Institutions = more fragile Policies = more erratic Authoritarian developmental (AD; South Korea, Taiwan) Development + improved citizen capability Authoritarian predatory (AP; Nigeria, Zaire (DRC)) No development, no capability Developmental democracies (DD; Chile, Costa Rica, Mauritius) Development + improved citizen capability Fragmented democracies (FD; Brazil, India, Philippines) Some development + some citizen capability

AD: P OLITICS Geography, politics Powerful enemies Threat of internal unrest Absence of natural resources Incentives to promote economic development, share wealth Nationalism, anticommunism Support in key constituencies Entrepreneurs/capitalists Farmers Workers paid cost of industrialization; over time enjoyed more benefits

AD: P OLICIES Rapid industrialization; competitiveness Import substitution industrialization (ISI) Manufacture for export, Export- oriented industrialization (EOI) Not market capitalism model Japan’s state-led development model

AD: I NSTITUTIONS Centralized political system (power concentrated in small elite; executive) Legislatures, courts, local government not effective check Strong, coherent state Effective policy implementation Officials autonomous, competent, professional Close relationship to business community Institutions devoted to legitimation and security Elections Schools, media Security, repression

AP: P OLITICS No economic, no human development Little incentive Plagued by ethnic, linguistic, regional conflicts Class interests submerged Narrow coalitions -- ethnic, linguistic, regional loyalties Clientelism = patron gives client favors for support Divide and rule; intimidation Clientelist politicians Narrow, geographically defined constituencies Patronage to supporters Most get little benefit

AP: P OLICIES Goal of leaders = enrich themselves, families, followers Economic development – concentrate wealth in elite hands ISI  accumulation of wealth by leaders Human development policies (e ducation, health care) opportunities for making money School, clinic construction – kickbacks, graft

AP: INSTITUTIONS Weak states – no capacity, autonomy Political parties – no clear policy goals Weak legislatures Corrupt bureaucracies State unable to deliver basic goods and services Inadequate infrastructure Limited protection of property rights Inefficient firms protected Inefficient management of foreign investment, aid

A UTHORITARIAN REGIMES Why are some developmental (AD), others predatory (AP)? (see Table 8.1, 225) Incentives leaders have to build broad/narrow coalitions Quality of state institutions for implementing policies Kinds of groups and social classes for coalitions of support

DD: P OLITICS Democracy, economic growth, and human development; mutually reinforcing Consolidating democracy  convincing social groups/classes they benefit from democracy Meet needs of poor; do not threaten interests of wealthier groups Trade-offs  broad-based social democratic political parties, federations of labor and business, capable, coherent state bureaucracies Compromise  political influence to agricultural workers, small farmers, and urban workers

DD: P OLICIES Strong social democratic parties Capitalist economic growth, substantial safety nets Minimal state ownership Growth with equity Export-led growth, integration into global market Substantial social welfare programs Strengthened labor union bargaining power Increased citizens’ capability

DD: I NSTITUTIONS Stable, broad-based political parties Capable, coherent state bureaucracies Parties appeal to broad groups of voters through policies that promote growth with equity Broad-based labor and business federations Represent workers and businesses in most sectors Strong, autonomous states Implement policies favoring broad categories of population Bureaucracies with capable officials; coherent, successful policy-making, implementation

FD: P OLITICS Fragmented political parties, interest associations, states Large inequalities in wealth, power, citizen capability; large and diverse populations Politicians appeal to upper income groups Clientelism inhibits peasants and workers Rulers engage in identity politics Politicians engage in populism Governments target benefits to privileged groups, organized workers Local elites manipulate elections

FD: POLICIES Benefits go to wealthier business people, union leaders, large farmers, middle class ISI protects businesses; gives subsidies to large farmers Educational, health care, retirement, unemployment geared to upper- and middle-classes Policies biased toward urban middle-class and wealthy, some improvements in lives of poor

FD: INSTITUTIONS Fragmented political institutions Multiple political parties, interest groups, federal systems Parties rely on patronage, appeals to racial and ethnic identity Legislators focus on pork barrel projects, local benefits Fragmentation within state prevents implementation of coherent programs

D EMOCRATIC R EGIMES Why some developmental (DD), others fragmented (FD)? (Table 8.4, 236) Incentives leaders have for broad/narrow coalitions Quality of state institutions for implementing policies Groups and social classes for coalitions of support Political parties, interest groups broad-based or fragmented

C OMPARING CAPABILITY Physical well-being AD/DD > FD > AP (Table 8.5, 237; Table 8.6, 238) Informed decision-making AD > DD > FD > AP (Table 8.7, 239) Safety AD > DD > FD > AP (Table 8.8, 240) Civil and political rights DD > FD > AD > AP (Table 8.9, 241)