9–2 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. Chapter Learning Objectives After studying this chapter you should be able to: 1.Explain the nature of the individual–organization relationship. 2.Define personality and describe personality attributes that affect behavior in organizations. 3.Discuss individual attitudes in organizations and how they affect behavior. 4.Describe basic perceptual processes and the role of attributions in organizations. 5.Discuss the causes and consequences of stress and describe how it can be managed. 6.Describe creativity and its role in organizations. 7.Explain how workplace behaviors can directly or indirectly influence organizational effectiveness.

Individual Contributions Understanding Individuals in Organizations The Psychological Contract –The overall set of expectations held by an individual with respect to what he or she will contribute to the organization and what the organization will provide in return. The Psychological Contract Organizational Inducements © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–3

9–4 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. FIGURE 9.1 The Psychological Contract

Understanding Individuals in Organizations The Person-Job Fit –The extent to which the contributions made by the individual match the inducement offered by the organization. Each employee has a specific set of needs to be fulfilled and a set of job-related behaviors to contribute. The degree to which the organization can take advantage of those behaviors and, in turn, fulfill an employee’s needs will determine the level of person-job fit. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–5

Personality and Individual Behavior Personality –The relatively stable set of psychological and behavioral attributes that distinguish one person from another. Agreeableness Conscientiousness Extroversion Openness Negative Emotionality The “Big Five” Personality Traits © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–6

9–7 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. FIGURE 9.2The “Big Five” Model of Personality High agreeablenessLow agreeableness Agreeableness High conscientiousnessLow conscientiousness Conscientiousness Less negative emotionalityMore negative emotionality Negative Emotionality More extraversionMore introversion Extraversion More opennessLess openness Openness

The “Big Five” Personality Traits Agreeableness –A person’s ability to get along with others. Conscientiousness –The number of goals on which a person focuses. Negative emotionality –The extent to which a person is poised, calm, resilient, and secure. Extraversion –A person’s comfort level with relationships. Openness –A person’s rigidity of beliefs and range of interests. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–8

The Myers-Briggs Framework Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) –A questionnaire used to differentiate personalities on the dimensions of the MB framework –Useful to determine communication styles and interaction preferences; has questionable reliability and validity. Personality Types –Extraversion (E) versus Introversion (I) –Sensing (S) versus Intuition (N) –Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F) –Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P) © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–9

Personality Traits Machiavellianism Self-Esteem Risk propensity Personality Traits at Work Locus of control Self-efficacy Authoritarianism © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–10

Personality Traits at Work Locus of Control –The extent to which people believe that their behavior has a real effect on what happens to them. –Internal locus of control—individuals who believe they are in control of their lives. –External locus of control—individuals believe that external forces dictate what happens to them. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–11

Personality Traits at Work (cont’d) Self-Efficacy –A person’s belief about his or her capabilities to perform a task. –High self-efficacy individuals believe they can perform well while low self-efficacy individuals doubt their ability to perform. Authoritarianism –The extent to which an individual believes that power and status differences are appropriate within hierarchical social systems like organizations. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–12

Personality Traits at Work (cont’d) Machiavellianism –Individual behavior directed at gaining power and controlling the behavior of others. Self-Esteem –The extent to which a person believes she/he is a worthwhile individual. Risk Propensity –The degree to which an individual is willing to take chances and make risky decisions. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–13

Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence (EQ) –The extent to which people are self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, express empathy, and possess social skills. Self-awareness Managing Emotions Empathy Social skills Motivating oneself Dimensions of EQ © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–14

Attitudes and Individual Behavior Attitudes –Complexes of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations, or other people. Cognitive Dissonance –The mental discomfort that individuals experience when their own attitudes are in conflict with their intended behavior. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–15

Attitudinal Components Cognitive Component Why we feel that way Affective Component How we feel toward the situation Intentional Component How we intend to behave toward or in the situation © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–16

Work-Related Attitudes Job Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction –An attitude that reflects the extent to which an individual is gratified or fulfilled by his or her work. Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors –Job satisfaction is influenced by personal, group, and organizational factors. Satisfied employees are absent from work less often, make positive contributions, and stay with the organization. Dissatisfied employees are absent from work more often, may experience stress which disrupts coworkers, and are continually looking for another job. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–17

Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d) Job Satisfaction and Work Behaviors –High levels of job satisfaction do not necessarily lead to high job performance. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–18

Work-Related Attitudes (cont’d) Organizational Commitment –An attitude that reflects an individual’s identification with and attachment to an organization. Organizational Commitment and Work Behaviors –Employee commitment strengthens with an individual’s age, years with the organization, sense of job security, and participation in decision making. –Committed employees have highly reliable habits, plan a longer tenure with the organization, and muster more effort in performance. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–19

Affect and Mood in Organizations Positive Affectivity –A tendency to be relatively upbeat and optimistic, have an overall sense of well-being, see things in a positive light, and seem to be in a good mood. Negative Affectivity –A tendency to be generally downbeat and pessimistic, tend to see things in a negative way, and seem to be in a bad mood. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–20

Perception and Individual Behavior Perception –The set of processes by which an individual becomes aware of and interprets information. Selective Perception –The process of screening out information that we are uncomfortable with or that contradicts our beliefs. –If selective perception causes someone to ignore important information it can become quite detrimental. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–21

Perception (cont’d) Stereotyping –The process of categorizing or labeling people on the basis of a single attribute (e.g., gender and race.) –Stereotyping may cost the organization valuable talent, violate federal anti-bias laws, and is unethical. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–22

9–23 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. FIGURE 9.3Perceptual Processes

Characteristics and Processes That Affect Perception Characteristics of the person: Salience Disposition Attitudes Self-concept Personality Characteristics of the object: Contrast Intensity Movement Repetition Novelty Situational characteristics: Selection Organization Stereotyping Halo Projection © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–24

Perception and Perceptual Processes Attribution –A mechanism through which we observe behavior and attribute a cause to it. How Behavioral Attributions Are Formed: –Consensus Do other people in the same situation behave the same way? –Consistency Does this person behave the same way at different times? –Distinctiveness Does this person behave the same way in other situations? © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–25

Stress and Individual Behavior Stress –A person’s response to a strong stimulus (i.e., a stressor.) General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) –Stage 1 Alarm Panic, wondering how to cope, and a feeling of helplessness. –Stage 2 Resistance Individual is actively resisting the effects of the stressor. –Stage 3 Exhaustion Prolonged exposure to stress causes an individual to give up. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–26

9–27 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. FIGURE 9.4The General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1 Alarm Stage 3 Exhaustion Stage 2 Resistance Stages of the General Adaptation Syndrome Normal level of resistance Response to stressful event

Personality Types Type A personality –Extremely competitive, aggressive, devoted to work, have a strong sense of time urgency, impatient. –Have a lot of drive and want to accomplish as much as possible as quickly as possible. Type B personality –Less competitive, less devoted to work, have a weaker sense of time urgency. –Less likely to experience personal stress or to come into conflict with other people. –Likely to have a balanced, relaxed approach to life. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–28

9–29 © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. FIGURE 9.5Causes of Work Stress Interpersonal Demands Group pressures Leadership styles Conflicting personalities Task Demands Quick decisions Critical decisions Incomplete informa- tion for decisions Physical Demands Temperature extremes Poorly designed office Threats to health Role Demands Role ambiguity Role conflict Organizational Stressors

Consequences of Stress Negative personal consequences –Behavioral—smoking, alcoholism, overeating, drug abuse. –Psychological—sleep disturbances, depression. –Medical—heart disease, stroke, backaches, ulcers, skin conditions. Negative work-related consequences –Poor quality work output and lower productivity. –Job dissatisfaction, low morale, and a lack of commitment. –Withdrawal through indifference and absenteeism. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–30

Individual Consequences of Stress Burnout –A feeling of exhaustion that may develop when someone experiences too much stress for an extended period of time. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–31

Managing Stress Regular Exercise Relaxation Time Management Support Groups Stress Management Strategies for Individuals © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–32

Stress Management Strategies Regular Exercise –Reduces tension and stress, and improves self- confidence and feelings of optimism. Relaxation –Allows individuals to adapt and deal with their stress. Time Management –Reduces stress by prioritizing activities to accomplish them in their order of importance. Support Groups –Socializing away from work reduces stress. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–33

Creativity in Organizations Creativity –The ability of an individual to generate new ideas or to conceive of new perspectives in existing ideas. The Creative Individual –Background experiences and creativity –Personal traits and creativity Creative persons have personal traits of openness, an attraction to complexity, high levels of energy, independence, autonomy, strong self-confidence, and a strong belief in their own creativity. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–34

Creativity in Organizations (cont’d) Cognitive Abilities and Creativity –Most creative people are highly intelligent. –They are both divergent and convergent thinkers, a skill they use to see differences and similarities in situations, phenomena, and events. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–35

The Creative Process Preparation Incubation Insight Verification © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–36

The Creative Process Preparation –Formal education and training is used to “get up to speed.” –Experiences on the job provide additional knowledge and ideas. Incubation –A period of conscious concentration during which knowledge and ideas mature and develop. –Incubation is helped by pauses in rational thought. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–37

The Creative Process (cont’d) Insight –A spontaneous breakthrough in which the creative person achieves a new understanding of some problem or situation. –Patterns of thought coalesce into a new understanding. Verification –Determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight. –Tests are conducted and prototypes are built to see if the insight leads to the expected results. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–38

The Creative Process (cont’d) Enhancing Creativity in Organizations –Make creativity part of the organization’s culture. Set goals for revenues from creative products and services. Reward creative success; refrain from punishing creative failures— some ideas work out as expected, others don’t. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–39

Workplace Behaviors Performance Behaviors Organizational Citizenship Withdrawal Behaviors Types of Workplace Behaviors © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–40

Types of Workplace Behavior Workplace Behavior –A pattern of action by the members of an organization that directly or indirectly influences organizational effectiveness. Performance Behaviors –The total set of work-related behaviors an organization expects an individual to display. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–41

Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d) Withdrawal Behaviors –Absenteeism Occurs when an individual does not show up for work when expected for legitimate or feigned reasons. May be a symptom of other work-related problems. –Turnover occurs when individuals quit their jobs for work-related or personal reasons. © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–42

General BehaviorsGeneral Attitudes Attitude–Behavior Relationships Specific Attitude Example Positive attitude toward working hard this morning Specific Behavior Example High work performance during morning hours © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–43

Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d) Organizational Citizenship –The behavior of individuals that makes a positive overall contribution to the organization. Social context of the workplace (work group) Determinants of Organizational Citizenship Organization’s capability to reward citizenship Individual’s personality, attitudes, and needs © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–44

Types of Workplace Behavior (cont’d) Dysfunctional Behaviors –Behaviors that detract from, rather than contribute to, organizational performance. Absenteeism and turnover Theft and sabotage Sexual and racial harassment Politicized behavior Intentionally misleading others Spreading malicious rumors Workplace violence © 2014 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part, except for use as permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use. 9–45