Language and Speech Technology: Parsing Jan Odijk January 2011 LOT Winter School

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 2

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 3

Grammars Grammar G = (V T, V N, P, S) where –V T terminal vocabulary –V N nonterminal vocabulary –P set of rules α→β (lhs → rhs) α Є V N + β Є (V N U V T ) * –S Є V N (start symbol) 4

Grammars Example Grammar G = (V T, V N, P, S) with –V T = {the, a, garden, book, in,} –V N = {NP, Det, N, P, PP} –P = {PP→P NP, NP→Det N, Det→the, Det→a, N→garden, N→book, P→in } –S = PP 5

Example Derivation PP (start symbol) P NP (PP →P NP) in NP(P → in) in Det N (NP →Det N) in the N (Det → the) in the garden ( N → garden) 6

Grammar Types Finite State Grammars (Type 3) –A → aA, A → a. A Є V N, a Є V T –Too weak to deal with natural language in toto –Efficient processing techniques –Often used for applications where partial analyses of natural language are sufficient –Often used for morphology / phonology 7

Grammar Types Context-Free Grammars (CFG, Type 2) –A → β. A Є V N –To weak to deal with natural language Surely for strong generative adequacy Also for weak generative adequacy –Reasonably efficient processing techniques –Generally taken as a basis for dealing with natural language, extended with other techniques 8

Grammar Types Context-Sensitive Grammars (Type 1) –α→β, |α| <= |β| –Usually not considered in the context of NLP Type-0 grammars –No restrictions –Usually not considered except in combination with CFG 9

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 10

Parsing –Is an algorithm It must finish! –For assigning syntactic structures Ambiguity! –To a sequence of terminal symbols –In accordance with a given grammar –(If possible, efficient) 11

Parsing for CFGs Focus here on –Parser for CFGs –for natural language –More specifically: Earley parser Why? –Most NLP systems with a grammar use a parser for CFG as a basis – Basic techniques will also recur in parsers for different grammar types 12

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 13

Naïve Parsing see handout Problems for naïve parsing –A lot of re-parsing of subtrees –Bottom-up Wastes time and space on trees that cannot lead to S –Top-down Wastes time and space on trees that cannot match input string 14

Naïve parsing Top-down –Recursion problem Can be solved for right-recursion by matching with input tokens, but Problem with left recursion remains: –NP → NP PP Ambiguity –Temporary ambiguity –Real ambiguity 15

Naïve parsing Naïve Parsing Complexity –Time needed to parse is exponential: –c n (c a constant, length input tokens) –(in the worst case) Takes too much time Is not practically feasible 16

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 17

Earley Parser Top-down approach but –Predictor avoids wasting time and space on irrelevant trees –Does not build actual structures, but stores enough information to reconstruct structures –Uses dynamic programming technique to avoid recomputation of subtrees –Avoids problems with left recursion –Makes complexity cubic: n 3 18

Earley Parser Number positions in input string (0.. N) 0 book 1 that 2 flight 3 Notation [i,j] stands for the string from position i to position j –[0,1] = “book” –[1,3] = “that flight” –[2,2]= “” 19

Earley Parser Dotted Rules –is a grammar rule + indication of progress – ie. Which elements of the rhs have been seen yet and which ones not yet –Indicated by a dot (we use an asterisk) Example –S → Aux NP * VP –Aux and NP have been dealt with but VP not yet 20

Earley Parser Input: –Sequence of N words (words[1..N]), and –grammar Output: –a Store = (agenda, chart) (sometimes chart = N+1 chart entries: chart[0.. N]) 21

Earley Parser Agenda, chart: sets of states A state consists of –Dotted rule –Span relative to the input: [i,j] –Previous states: list of state identifiers And gets a unique identifier Example –S11: VP → V’ * NP; [0,1]; [S8] 22

Earley Parser State –Is complete iff dot is the last element in the dotted rule E.g. state with VP → Verb NP * is complete NextCat (state) –Only applies if state is not complete –Is the category immediately following the dot –VP → Verb * NP : NextCat(state)= NP 23

Earley Parser 3 operations on states, –Predictor Predicts which categories to expect –Scanner if a terminal category C is expected, and a word of category C is encountered in this position, –Consumes the word and shifts the dot –Completer Applies to a complete state s, and modifies all states that gave rise to this state 24

Earley Parser Predictor –Applies to an incomplete state –( A → α * B β, [i,j], _) –B is a nonterminal –For each (B → γ) in grammar Make a new state s = (B → * γ, [j,j], []) enqueue(s, store) –Enqueue (s,ce) = add s to ce unless ce already contains s 25

Earley Parser Scanner –Applies to an incomplete state –( A → α * b β, [i,j], _) –b is a terminal Make a new state s = (b → words[j] *, [j,j+1], []) enqueue(s, store) 26

Earley Parser Completer –Applies to an complete state –( B → γ *, [j,k], L1) –For each (A → α * B β, [i,j], L2) in chart[j] Make new state s = (A → α B * β, [i,k], L2 ++ L1) enqueue(s, store) 27

Earley Parser Store = (agenda, chart) Apply operations on states in the agenda until the agenda is empty When applying an operation to a state s in the agenda –Move the state s from the agenda into the chart –Add the resulting states of the operation to the agenda 28

Earley Parser Initial store = ([Г → *S], emptychart) –Where Г is a ‘fresh’ nonterminal start symbol Input sentence accepted –Iff there is a state (Г → S *, [0,N], LS) in the chart and the agenda is empty Parse tree(s) can be reconstructed via the list of earlier states (LS) 29

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 30

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 31

Earley Parser Extensions Replace elements of V by feature sets (attribute-value matrices, AVMs) –Harmless if finitely valued –E.g. instead of NP [cat=N, bar=max, case=Nom] –Usually other relation than ‘=‘ used for comparison E.g. ‘is compatible with’, ‘unifies with’, ‘subsumes’ 32

Earley Parser Extensions Replace rhs of rules by regular expressions over V (or AVMs) E.g. VP → V NP? (AP | PP)* abbreviates VP → V, VP → V NP, VP → V APorPP, VP → V NP APorPP, APorPP → AP APorPP, APorPP → PP APorPP, APorPP → AP, APorPP → PP Where APorPP is a ‘fresh’ virtual nonterminal Virtual : is discarded when constructing the trees 33

Earley Parser Extensions My grammatical formalism has no PS rules! But only ‘lexical projection’ of syntactic selection properties (subcategorization list) E.g. buy: [cat=V, subcat = [_ NP PP, _ NP]]  create PS rules on the fly –If buy occurs in the input tokens, create rules VP → buy NP PP and VP → buy NP –From the lexical entry –And use these rules to parse 34

Earley Parser Extensions My grammar contains ε-rules: –NP → ε –Where ε stands for the empty string –(i.e. NP matches the empty string in the input token list) Earley parser can deal with these! But extensive use creates many ambiguities! 35

Earley Parser Extensions My grammar contains empty categories –Independent PRO as subject of non-finite verbs –PRO buying books is fun pro as subject of finite verbs in pro-drop languages –pro no hablo Español Pro as subject of imperatives –pro schaam je! Epsilon rules can be used or represent this at other level 36

Earley Parser Extensions My grammar contains empty categories –Dependent trace of wh-movement –What did you buy t Trace of Verb movement (e.g V2 in Dutch, German, Aux movement in English –Hij belt hem op t –Did you t buy a book? –Epsilon rules are not sufficient 37

Earley Parser Extensions Other types (levels) of representation LFG: (c-structure, f-structure) HPSG: DAGs (special type of AVMs) (constituent structure, semantic representation) Use CFG as backbone grammar –Which accepts a superset of the language –For each rule specify how to construct other level of representation –Extend Earley parser to deal with this 38

Earley Parser Extensions Other types (levels) of representation f-structure, DAGs, semantic representations are not finitely valued Thus it will affect efficiency But allows dealing with e.g. –Non-context-free aspects of a language –Unbounded dependencies (e.g. by ‘gap-threading’) 39

Earley Parser in Practice Parsers for natural language yield –Many many parse trees for an input sentence Many more than you can imagine (thousands) Even for relatively short, simple sentences They are all syntactically correct But make no sense semantically 40

Earley Parser in Practice Additional constraining is required –To reduce the temporary ambiguities –To come up with the ‘best’ parse Can be done by semantic constraints –But only feasible for very small domains Is most often done using probabilities –Rule probabilities derived from frequencies in treebanks 41

Parsers: Some Examples Dutch: Alpino parserAlpino parser Stanford parsers –English, Arabic, Chinese English: ACL OverviewACL Overview 42

Overview Grammars & Grammar Types Parsing –Naïve Parsing –Earley Parser –Example (using handouts) Earley Parser Extensions Parsers & CLARIN 43

Parsers & CLARIN Parser allows one to automatically analyze large text corpora Resulting in treebanks Can be used for linguistic research –But with care!! Example: Lassy Demo (Dutch)Lassy Demo –Simple search interface to LASSY-small Treebank –Use an SVG compatible browser (e.g. Firefox) 44

Parsers & CLARIN Example of linguistic research using a treebank: Van Eynde 2009: A treebank-driven investigation of predicative complements in DutchVan Eynde

Thanks for your attention! 46