Chapter 13: Personality

Each dwarf has a distinct personality. An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Each dwarf has a distinct personality.

Psychodynamic Perspective Freud’s clinical experience led him to develop the first comprehensive theory of personality, which included the unconscious mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms. Culver Pictures Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Divisions of Consciousness Conscious mind - level of the mind that is aware of immediate surroundings and perceptions. Preconscious mind - level of the mind in which information is available but not currently conscious. Unconscious mind - level of the mind in which thoughts, feelings, memories, and other information are kept that are not easily or voluntarily brought into consciousness. Can be revealed in dreams and Freudian slips of the tongue.

Exploring the Unconscious A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came to their minds (free association) in order to tap the unconscious. http://www.english.upenn.edu

Psychoanalysis The process of free association (chain of thoughts) leads to painful, embarrassing unconscious memories. Once these memories are retrieved and released (treatment: psychoanalysis) the patient feels better.

Id, Ego, Superego The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates the demands of the id and superego. (rational and logical) Reality principle - principle by which the ego functions; the satisfaction of the demands of the id only when negative consequences will not result. The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations; moral center Ego ideal - part of the superego that contains the standards for moral behavior. Conscience - part of the superego that produces pride or guilt, depending on how well behavior matches or does not match the ego ideal.

Id, Ego and Superego The Id- unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Libido - the instinctual energy that may come into conflict with the demands of a society’s standards for behavior. Pleasure principle - principle by which the id functions; the immediate satisfaction of needs without regard for the consequences.

Fig. 12-2, p. 473 Figure 12.2: Freud’s model of personality structure. Freud theorized that people have three levels of awareness: the conscious, the preconscious, and the unconscious. The enormous size of the unconscious is often dramatized by comparing it to the portion of an iceberg that lies beneath the water’s surface. Freud also divided personality structure into three components—id, ego, and superego—which operate according to different principles and exhibit different modes of thinking. In Freud’s model, the id is entirely unconscious, but the ego and superego operate at all three levels of awareness. Fig. 12-2, p. 473

Personality Development Freud believed that personality formed during the first few years of life divided into 5 psychosexual stages. During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas called erogenous zones. Fixation - disorder in which the person does not fully resolve the conflict in a particular psychosexual stage, resulting in personality traits and behavior associated with that earlier stage.

Stages of Personality Development Oral stage - first stage occurring in the first year of life in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and weaning is the primary conflict. Id dominated. Fixation: smoking, drinking, excessive eating, sucking thumb

Stages of Personality Development Anal stage - second stage occurring from about 1 to 3 years of age, in which the anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training is the source of conflict. Ego develops. Anal expulsive personality - a person fixated in the anal stage who is messy, destructive, and hostile. Anal retentive personality - a person fixated in the anal stage who is neat, fussy, stingy, and stubborn.

Stages of Personality Development Phallic stage - third stage occurring from about 3 to 6 years of age, in which the child discovers sexual feelings. Superego develops. Oedipus complex- situation occurring in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of the same-sex parent. A girl’s desire for her father is called the Electra complex. Penis Envy for girls Identification - defense mechanism in which a person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety.

Stages of Personality Development Latency - fourth stage occurring during the school years(6-Puberty), in which the sexual feelings of the child are repressed while the child develops in other ways. Becomes more social. Genital – fifth stage; sexual feelings reawaken with appropriate targets.

Defense Mechanisms The ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. Repression banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Physical or sexual abuse in childhood Regression an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage; childlike behaviors College student sucking their thumb Preview Question 2: How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?

Defense Mechanisms Reaction Formation causes the ego to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from unconscious feelings about sex. Projection leads people to disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others. Accusing people of being loud, when its really you

Defense Mechanisms Rationalization offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s actions. I'm on a diet but if I didn’t eat that cheesecake it would have went to waste Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, redirecting anger toward a safer outlet. Teacher has a bad day… yell at the students!

Defense Mechanisms 7. Denial is rejecting the truth of a painful reality Refusal to accept a frightening medical diagnosis 8. Sublimation an undesirable emotion or drive is substituted with a socially acceptable one Want to hit someone… join boxing 9. Suppression is a conscious attempt to push something out of memory

The Neo-Freudians Neo-Freudians - followers of Freud who developed their own competing theories of psychoanalysis.

The Neo-Freudians Like Freud, Adler believed in childhood tensions. However, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual. A child struggles with an inferiority complex during growth and strives for superiority and power. Preview Question 3: Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject? National Library of Medicine Alfred Adler (1870-1937) Birth Order Theory- first born child more goal oriented than the next

The Neo-Freudians Like Adler, Horney believed in the social aspects of childhood growth and development. She countered Freud’s assumption that women have weak superegos and suffer from “penis envy” instead men suffer from “womb envy.” Basic anxiety - anxiety created when a child is born into the bigger and more powerful world of older children and adults. The Bettmann Archive/ Corbis Karen Horney (1885-1952)

The Neo-Freudians Jung believed in the collective unconscious, which contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species’ past. This is why many cultures share certain myths and images such as the mother being a symbol of nurturance. Personal unconscious - Jung’s name for the unconscious mind as described by Freud. Collective unconscious – Jung’s name for the memories shared by all members of the human species. Archetypes - Jung’s collective, universal human memories. Carl Jung (1875-1961)

The Modern Unconscious Mind Modern research shows the existence of non- conscious information processing. This involves: schemas that automatically control perceptions and interpretations the right-hemisphere activity that enables the split-brain patient’s left hand to carry out an instruction the patient cannot verbalize parallel processing during vision and thinking implicit memories emotions that activate instantly without consciousness self-concept and stereotypes that unconsciously influence us Preview Question 5: How do contemporary psychologists view Freud and the unconscious?

Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been criticized. He is too male-centered. Psychoanalysis is meagerly testable. Most of its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are the after-the-fact explanations.

Assessing Unconscious Processes Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a psychological instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind. Projective tests – personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind. Preview Question 4: What are projective tests, and how are they used?

Rorschach Inkblot Test The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc. http://theinkblot.com/

Most Popular Responses: Bat (53%), Butterfly (39%) Card 1: Most Popular Responses: Bat (53%), Butterfly (39%) When seeing card I, subjects often inquire on how they should proceed, and questions on what they are allowed to do with the card (e.g. turning it) are not very significant. Being the first card, it can provide clues about how subjects tackle a new and stressful task. It is not, however, a card that is usually difficult for the subject to handle, having readily available popular responses.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

Projective Tests: Criticisms Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to). When evaluating the same patient, even trained raters come up with different interpretations (reliability). Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal individual as pathological (validity). Subjective - concepts and impressions that are only valid within a particular person’s perception and may be influenced by biases, prejudice, and personal experiences. This is a problem with projective tests.

Humanistic Perspective By the 1960s, psychologists became discontent with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic psychology of the behaviorists. Person-centered and positive about human potential Preview Question 6: How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality? http://www.ship.edu Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Self-Actualizing Person Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a hierarchy of needs. Beginning with physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self-actualization—fulfilling our potential. Ted Polumbaum/ Time Pix/ Getty Images http://www.ship.edu

Carl Roger’s Theory of Personality Self-concept - the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important, significant people in one’s life. Who am I? (How do I think of myself?) Self - archetype that works with the ego to manage other archetypes and balance the personality. Real self - one’s perception of actual characteristics, traits, and abilities. Ideal self - one’s perception of whom one should be or would like to be.

Roger’s Theory of Personality Positive regard – warmth, affection, love, and respect that come from significant others in one’s life. Unconditional positive regard - positive regard that is given without conditions or strings attached. Conditional positive regard- positive regard that is given only when the person is doing what the providers of positive regard wish. Fully functioning person – a person who is in touch with and trusting of the deepest, innermost urges and feelings.

Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact on counseling, education, child-rearing, and management with its emphasis on a positive self- concept, empathy, and the thought that people are basically good and can improve. Opponents view it as unrealistically positive and hard to measure empirically Preview Question 8: How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology? What criticisms has it faced?

Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits. The Trait Perspective An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her personality. Examples of Traits Honest Dependable Moody Impulsive Each personality is uniquely made up of multiple traits.

Exploring Traits Gordon Allport first developed a list of about 171 traits and believed that these traits were part of the nervous system. Cardinal Trait- single most dominant Central Traits- 5-10 significant tendencies Secondary Traits- often present but not as defining Raymond Cattell reduced the number of traits to between 16 and 23 with a computer method called Factor Analysis. 16 Personality Factors (16 PF) Preview Question 9: How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

Trait Theories of Personality Factor analysis, a statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits. Surface traits - aspects of personality that can easily be seen by other people in the outward actions of a person. Source traits - the more basic traits that underlie the surface traits, forming the core of personality. Example: Introversion - dimension of personality in which people tend to withdraw from excessive stimulation

Hans Eysenck Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability. PEN- Psychoticism- emotional caring Extroversion- outgoing Neuroticism- emotional stability

500 True or False Questions MMPI Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing several traits at once. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. It was originally developed to identify emotional disorders. 500 True or False Questions

MMPI Test Profile

The Big Five Factors Today’s trait researchers believe that earlier trait dimensions, such as Eysencks’ personality dimensions, fail to tell the whole story. So, an expanded range (five factors) of traits does a better job of assessment. Conscientiousness Agreeableness Neuroticism Openness Extraversion Preview Question 11: Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

The Big Five Factors Conscientiousness - thoughtfulness of others; responsibility or dependability; reliable Agreeableness – the range from easygoing, friendly, and likeable to grumpy, crabby, and unpleasant; honest, considerate, likable Neuroticism - degree of emotional instability or stability; anxious, self conscious Openness - willingness to try new things and be open to new experiences. Extraversion - referring to one’s need to be with other people; outgoing, expressive Extraverts - people who are outgoing and sociable. Introverts - people who prefer solitude and dislike being the center of attention.

Endpoints

Questions about the Big Five Quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development. 1. How stable are these traits? Fifty percent or so for each trait. 2. How heritable are they? These traits are common across cultures. 3. How about other cultures?

Evaluating the Trait Perspective The Person-Situation Controversy Walter Mischel (situationist) (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits are not good predictors of behavior. Average behavior remains the same Preview Question 12: Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

Social-Cognitive Perspective Albert Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context. Blends cognitive, social, and behavioral elements. Preview Question 13: In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality? Albert Bandura

Social-Cognitive Perspective Reciprocal determinism – interaction between the person, the environment, and the persons behavior We develop through watching others, but we choose our environments, which exposes us to certain people and situations, which in turn leads to make other choices, which exposes us to different experiences… etc. Self-efficacy – individual’s perception of how effective a behavior will be in any particular circumstance (NOT the same as self-esteem). Control the outcomes in one’s environment

Individuals & Environments Specific ways in which individuals and environments interact Different people choose different environments. The school you attend and the music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions. Our personalities shape how we react to events. Anxious people react to situations differently than relaxed people. Our personalities shape situations. How we view and treat people influences how they treat us.

Julian Rotter’s Social Learning Theory Social-cognitive psychologists emphasize our sense of personal control, whether we control the environment or the environment controls us. External locus of control refers to the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate. Internal locus of control refers to the perception that we can control our own fate. ie. Why you can’t get an A? Preview Question 14: What are the causes and consequences of personal control?

Self-Serving Bias We accept responsibility for good deeds and successes more than for bad deeds and failures. Defensive self- esteem is fragile and egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation. Self-handicapping is how many protect their self-image by creating a ready excuse for failure. We protect our self-image by attributing our failure to external factors rather than to ourselves, creating a no-lose situation for our self-esteem. .

Explanatory Styles: Optimism vs. Pessimism Martin Seligman An optimistic or pessimistic attributional style is your way of explaining positive or negative events. ie. How long bad periods will last? Optimistic- won’t last! Pessimistic- forever Positive psychology aims to discover and promote conditions that enable individuals and communities to thrive.

Learned Helplessness When unable to avoid repeated adverse events an animal or human learns helplessness and will stop trying all together.

Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Perspective The social-cognitive perspective on personality sensitizes researchers to the effects of situations on and by individuals. It builds on learning and cognition research. Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention to the individual, his unconscious mind, his emotions, and his genetics. Preview Question 16: What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticisms has it faced?