Dr. Monira Al-Mohizea MORPHOLOGY & SYNTAX WEEK 9

Verbs (1) Function Function: Verbs can be main verbs or Auxiliaries (helping verbs); Main verbs always function as the main element of a verb phrase. They can stand on their own as a verb phrase, or they can follow other verbs called auxiliaries??: Because the verb phrase is the pivotal element of a clause, and every verb phrase contains a main verb. Therefore, it is good to start analyzing a sentence by looking for the (main) verb first.

Test: Consider this example:  Which word is the main verb? One morning the little girl was hurrying along the street.

Verbs (2) Form, inflections Verb forms ( inflections ) Regular vs. Irregular Plain form S-formed-forming-formen-form RegularAskAsksAskedAskingAsked IrregularWriteWritesWroteWritingWritten

Verbs (2) Form Some verbs, have derivational suffixes like —ise, —ize (realize/realize) and —ify (clarify), but these are not terribly important. Each verb has up to five different inflectional forms, (plain form, s-form, ed-form, ing-form and en-form)  most verbs behave regularly, and have forms like those of ask.  For irregular verbs (about 200 in English), ed-form and en-form can vary in different ways (e.g. we call the en- forms 'en-forms' because they sometimes have the distinctive suffix —en (e.g. eaten, written), instead of —ed.  The plain form of a verb is the form without any suffix.

Verbs (3) Meaning Verbs can express: actions, events, states, etc. Such 'goings on' can be physical (e.g. eat) mental (e.g. think), perceptual (e.g. see), social (e.g. buy), and so on. An easy test for a verb is: Can the word vary its form from present tense to past tense? The plain form and the s- form are used for the present tense, while the ed-form is used for the regular past tense.  E.g. happen is a verb because we can contrast Nothing happens (present tense) with Nothing happened (past tense).

Adverbs Adverbs Adverbs are a particularly vague class of words to define. We can distinguish three major types of adverb: but there is considerable overlap between them. ① Most adverbs add some kind of circumstantial information (of time, place, manner, etc.) to the state of affairs expressed in the main part of the clause:  E.g. [(We) (sold) (the car) (hurriedly) (yesterday)]

Adverbs ② Some adverbs modify adjectives and other adverbs in terms of degree (e.g. fairly new, very hurriedly). ③ Sentence adverbs, which apply semantically to the whole clause or sentence, express an attitude to it, or a connection between it and another clause or sentence: E.g. [(so) (the whole thing) (was) (frankly) (too awful for words)]. All three types can be illustrated with the same adverb, seriously, which is a circumstantial adverb. Compare: 1.They listened to her complaints seriously. ('in a serious manner') 2.This cake is seriously scrumptious. (‘to a serious degree’) 3.Seriously, do you mean that? ('I'm asking you seriously')

Adverbs (1) Function the primary function of an adverb is to be head (or main word) of an adverb phrase. It can stand alone as a minimal adverb phrase, or it can be preceded and/or followed by another word, which is often itself an adverb. E.g. 1. [She spoke (softly)]. 2. [She spoke (very softly indeed)]. 3. [She spoke (too softly for me)]. These examples show us a second function: an adverb can act as modifier in an adjective phrase (e.g., very, rather, quite and somewhat) or in an adverb phrase (e.g., very, indeed and too)

Adverbs (2) Form Many adverbs are formed by adding —ly to an adjective. a few adverbs resemble adjectives, in having comparative and superlative forms:  E.g. soon, sooner, soonest; well, better, best. there is a major group of adverbs that have no suffix and do not resemble adjectives. Among these adverbs are some of the most common:  E.g. now, then, so, too, etc.

Adverbs (3) Meaning Adverbs can express many different types of meaning, especially as adjuncts in the clause. We can only give some important categories;  Test: to distinguish them, it is useful to use a question test; e.g. Where...?  Where did Stefan go?  He went home.

Some types of adverbs Types of Adverb Eliciting Question Examples?? Adverb type How? Manner adverb Where to? Place adverb Where to? Direction adverb Where from/to? Time-when adverb When? Frequency adverb How often? Degree adverb To what degree? Sentence adverbs (e.g. fortunately, probably, actually, and however) can be divided to: 1. Attitude or stance adverbs: (e.g. fortunately, perhaps, actually, surely) -- [(fortunately) (elephants) (cant fly)]. 2. Connecting adverbs: (e.g. so, moreover, however, therefore, though) -- [(some of them) (can run) (pretty fast), (however)]

‘Function word' classes There are seven function word classes. Unlike 'content word' classes they have relatively few members, so it is possible to identify each of them by listing their members. But as the term 'function word' implies, it is their functional role that is most important, and on which we will focus.

Determiners Determiners begin noun phrases, and are sometimes obligatory. If the head of a noun phrase is a singular count noun, then some determiner has to be added. SO *[(Dog) (bit) (man)]. Vs. [(The dog) (bit) (a man)] The, a, an are the most common determiners, and are important they are called respectively, the definite article and the indefinite article. Common determiners: the, a/an, this, that, these, all, some, any, no, every, each, many, which, what, his, our.

Pronouns Pronouns are words which are in a sense 'dummy' nouns or noun phrases, because they have a generalized or unspecific meaning.  E.g. the pronoun she can refer to any female person, because they usually stand alone in noun phrases, we consider pronouns to be the head of such phrases, though they are limited as to what words can be added to them. (e.g. we cannot say *a strange it or *the old everybody. Some common pronouns: me, mine, myself, we, he, she, it, they, this, that, these, everything; some, many, who, which, what.

Compare: Is there an overlap between determiners and pronouns?? Consider the following sentences: [(this juice) (is) (much too sweet)] Vs. [(this) (is) (an excellent drink)]

Numerals Numerals include:  Cardinal numbers (e.g. one, two, three,... ten,... 29)  Ordinal numbers (first, second, third,... tenth, th). they are exceptional as a function word class: as there is an infinite number of numerals. However, the vast majority of the numerals are compounds made up from a few basic number words. E.g. two hundred and twenty (or 220) is composed of the basic numerals two, hundred and twenty. Some basic numerals: one, two, three, four, five, ten, eleven, twenty, eighty, hundred, thousand, million first, second, third, fourth, fifth, tenth, eleventh, twentieth, hundredth, thousandth

Prepositions Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases, and express relations of possession, place, time, and many other meanings: (of the world), (by it), (on the coldest night of the year). Some common prepositions: (in order of frequency) I of, In, to, for, with, on, by, at, from, as, into, about, like, after, between, through, over There is large overlap between prepositions and adverbs, particularly adverbs of place or direction: Compare: [(I) (looked) (up the chimney)]. Vs. [(I) (looked) (up)].

Conjunctions Conjunctions, like prepositions, are introductory linking words; but they often introduce clauses rather than phrases. They subdivide into two different classes:  Subordinating conjunctions (e.g. ‘in order of frequency’ that, as, if, when, than, because, while, where, although, whether, before, since, so)  Coordinating conjunctions (e.g. ‘in order of frequency’ and, but, or, nor)

Thank you