Rhonda Magel Professor and Chair Department of Statistics

Perna (2001)- theoretical perspectives of salary studies 1 st – Human capital theory-accomplishments of faculty member (rank, number of publications, teaching effectiveness, length of time in job, etc.) 2 nd Structural Theory – characteristics of the institution or subject area (type of university, geographical location, academic area, etc.)

Studies involving both theories have found gaps Bellas (1993) – average female faculty salary approximately 25% below average male salary Barbezat and Hughes (2005)-controlled for several factors and still found 17-23% of variation in faculty salaries (with women making less) not accounted for Pay Gap Significantly higher at research universites (Barbezat and Hughes (2005)

Black Issues in Higher Ed (2005) Reports similar findings to Barbezat and Hughes (2005) Women earn 96% of what men earn at community colleges 89% of what men earn at baccalaureate institutions 87% of what men earn at master’s institutions 78% of what men earn at doctoral institutions

Travis, Gross Johnson (2009) Women make less money than men in fields that are traditionally considered female fields Women make less money in science fields that have few women

Time of Hire Steinpreis, Anders, and Ritzke (1999) – both men and women faculty rated male accomplishments higher than female accomplishments for job applicants even though equally qualified Toumanoff (2005) – male faculty paid more at time of hire Toutkoushian and Moore (2008) – male faculty paid more at time of hire but there is more of a gap later

Components in Relation to Salary Kasten (1984) and Jauch (2007) found research has largest effect on salaries; Jauch studied 23 “hard science” disciplines and found faculty who had better research evaluations spent more time on research and less time on teaching – rewards went to faculty with stronger research records Fairweather (2005)- considered number of hours faculty taught per week and number of research publications (not fine arts)-found salary went down for those faculty who taught an extra hour per week and went up with an additional publication (particularly at research universities)

Student Ratings of Instruction Teaching mainly evaluated at research universities through SROIs (Read, Rama, and Raghunandan 2001) SROIs have gender bias (Brady and Eisler 1999; Worthington 2002; Arbuckle and Williams 2003) In younger faculty, men got better ratings than women

Gendered Expectations of Students Female faculty must spend more time on teaching to meet their gendered expectations (caring, nurturing, available more often) Male gendered expectations (funny, energetic, intelligent) (Sprague and Massoni 2005; Laube, Massoni, Sprague, and Ferber 2007) Students expect female teachers to be available more often (Burns-Glover and Veith 1995)

University Climate not as Good for Women Female faculty in STEM not supported in research as much as Male faculty (Xu 2008) Gander (1999) and Park (1996) also report less research support Female faculty have lower job satisfaction and not as good of work climate (Settles, Cortina, Maley, Stewart (2006); Valian (2005)) Female Faculty felt excluded from discussions at work (Bronstein and Farnsworth (1998)

Climate (Continued) Cress and Hart (2009) found that the climate within the same department could be totally different for female and male faculty

NDSU Study – Research Productivity Slobin, McCulla, Magel (2002) Sampled 49 female faculty members at NDSU and paired each of them with a male faculty member of same rank in a similar discipline Asked each faculty member to give number in each category of presentations, publications, book chapters, performances, etc. within the past two years – then they were also asked to do that over their entire career

Paired difference in research productivity between male and female faculty was not significant over a two year period (although the sample average was lower for female faculty) Paired difference in research productivity between male and female faculty was significant over a career Female faculty appeared to loose a little ground every year in terms of research productivity when compared to male faculty Findings

Perna (2001) Found that females had fewer research accomplishments over their career than males of the same rank with similar experience controlling for academic field and type of university Proportion of time women spent on teaching compared to research was higher than for men Bellas and Toutkoushian (1999) found male faculty spent 6% more time on research than female faculty and 6% less time on teaching than female faculty

Other Countries U.K. (Todd et al. (2008)) – found male faculty had a much more realistic view of how they would be evaluated (maybe because fewer women in higher levels to mentor other women) – found female faculty were more likely to work overtime on teaching because they had to while male faculty were more likely to work overtime on research because they wanted to Sweden (Viefers et al. (2006)) – climate not conducive to women faculty in physics Van Anders (2004) - Canada

Theory Female faculty spend on the average more time on teaching than male faculty to meet the gendered expectations of their students Overall, support climate not as good for female faculty and they are not kept as informed (maybe because fewer women at higher levels to mentor other women) As student ratings of instruction increase for female faculty, their salary will decrease with the opposite being true for male faculty

Changes in Percentages of Women Mid 90’s – Approximately 3% of full professors were women at NDSU Fall 2011 – 11% of full professors were women Mid 90-s – 7-8% of associate professors were women Fall 2011 – 30% of associate professors were women

Work Life Survey – Early 2009 All tenured and tenure-track faculty given a chance to respond Faculty asked what percentages of time they presently spend on the areas of teaching, research and service and what percentages of time they would like to spend Female faculty spent significantly more time on teaching than they wanted to compared to male faculty Female faculty spent less time on research than they wanted to compared to male faculty (but not significant)

University Climate Score Responses to 20 items on a scale of 1 to 4 – respected by students, faculty, staff; feel isolated in the University; excluded from informal network; research is mainstream; etc. Scores ranged from 20 to 80 (higher score better) with 50=“neutral” Male – average 62.9 Female – average 56.2 Significant at.001 – no significant difference in STEM/Non-STEM

Standardized SROI Scores Z=(Class Average – Average for Class Level)/standard deviation of class level Standardized SROI scores averaged for every faculty member teaching at least one class during academic year No significant differences in number of classes taught by male and female faculty (2.85, 2.73)

Faculty Salary Study Nine month faculty salaries regressed on Market Salary, Rank, Whether or not in STEM, Average standardized SROI score, gender, interaction between gender and SROI score, race, number of classes Number of Classes, Race taken out of model – not significant

Findings As the average standardized SROI score for male faculty increased by 1 unit, salary increased by $1847 As the average standardized SROI score for female faculty increased by 1 unit, salary decreased by $701.00

ADVANCE/FORWARD Working on the entire university climate to try to get everyone included Course release grants – to give women more time to work on research Promotion to Professor seminars – to make sure faculty know what is expected of them to be promoted Mentoring groups – again to make sure faculty are aware of what they need to do SROIs – trying to get these changed to become less gender biased

Advance/Forward The number of women in full professor levels has increased The number of women at associate professor levels has increased The number of women in leadership positions has increased

Questions???????