LEARNING II: INSTRUCTION, PRACTICE, TRANSFER OF TRAINING AND FEEDBACK

Learning objectives understand the nature and role of instruction understand the nature and role of demonstration understand and classify different types of practice understand the nature and effect of contextual interference understand the nature and effect of variability of practice understand how and why transfer of training works be able to define and classify feedback understand the role of feedback in the retention of skills understand how dynamic systems theory accounts for the effect of practice understand the implications for coaches and performers

Instruction Instruction can be verbal, visual or verbal plus visual Normally given in the form of explicit rules for execution of the skill It is not possible to articulate all skills Analogy can be used as a form of verbal instruction Often used in implicit learning situations Visual or demonstration Must be technically correct Must be motivational Possibly activates mirror neurons in the premotor cortex, supplementary motor area and somatosensory cortex Verbal plus visual Verbal is used to direct learner’s attention to key points in the demonstration

Focus of attention A form of instruction is to direct the learner’s focus of attention prior to beginning practice Focus can be external or internal External focus Focusing on factors outside of the mind or body Often factors related to outcome Internal focus Focusing on the feel of the movement or the rules for performing the task External focus tends to be more advantageous for learning

Types of practice Practice can be massed or spaced Massed Spaced little or no gap between trials Spaced when practice is interspersed with rest periods or breaks Little or no difference in learning resulting from the two types of practice Boredom or fatigue can set in during massed practice Following a rest, however, there is no difference when retention tests are conducted

Types of practice Whole practice Part-practice Practising a task in its entirety Realistic Motivational Part-practice Practising a part of a skill in isolation to the rest of the task Can be unrealistic Part-progressive practice Task is broken down into parts Individual practises part one, then adds part two, followed by part three and so on Plateauing can occur when parts are added together Whole-part-whole practice Initial whole practice sets the scene for the learner Part or part-progressive practice is carried out until learner can return to the whole

Types of practice Blocked practice Random practice Serial practice when the learner practises one skill continually with no interference from the performance of other skills Random practice the athlete performs two or more skills having random trials on each skill Serial practice Learner practises more than one skill and practice is interspersed between the skills but in a serial order Performance immediately after practice is best following blocked practice but Following a retention test, serial and random practices produce better results This is the contextual interference effect Shea and Morgan’s (1979) theory of elaboration All of the skills are held in working memory at the same time, thus allowing the learner to compare recall, recognition and sensory consequences of the different skills Lee and Magill’s (1983) action plan reconstruction theory. They claimed that during random and serial practice the learner experiences partial or total forgetting of a skill when working on the other skills. On returning to the ‘forgotten’ skill, they have to re-plan the way in which they will perform it, i.e. re-draw their action plan This aids the development of schemas

Types of practice Variable practice Use of different initial conditions, therefore different response parameters are necessary, therefore mistakes will be made which result in error labelling, which aids schema formation

deliberate practice It takes 10 years and/or about 10,000 hours undertaking deliberate practice to develop expertise (Ericsson et al., 1993) Deliberate practice requires time and energy from the learner and Access to coaches/teachers and training facilities It is not inherently motivating This may not apply to sport Deliberate practice requires effort Mental and physical

Dynamic systems theory and practice Practice is learning Coach sets goals Coach manipulates constraints to aid learning Constraints can be manipulated in conditioned games No dribbling in basketball (task constraint) Aids learning passing and support play Using a narrow playing area in field hockey (environmental constraint) Aids players using the full width of the playing area Players not allowed to call for the ball (organismic constraint) in soccer Means that players must look up to see where teammates are positioned

Transfer of training The effect that practice on one task has on the learning and/or performance of another task Can be positive or negative Practice of one task has a facilitating effect on the learning or performance of another Practice of one task has an inhibiting effect on the learning or performance of another Proactive facilitation or inhibition is when practice on a task affects the learning or performance of a subsequent task Retroactive facilitation or inhibition is when practice of a new task affects the performance of a previously learned or practised task Intraclass transfer Transfer between variations of the same task

Transfer theorieS Judd’s (1908) general elements (principles) theory Positive transfer occurs when two tasks require the same or similar general principles There will be transfer if two tasks use the same neurological pathways Thorndike’s (1927) identical elements theory Positive transfer will occur if the purposes of two responses are the same regardless of the nature of the stimulus Holding (1976) Positive transfer will occur when a new but similar stimulus requires the use of a well-learned response This is stimulus generalization Negative transfer will occur when the same or similar stimulus requires a new and different response This is response generalization

Bilateral transfer Bilateral transfer refers to transfer from a limb on one side of the body to another limb on the opposite side of the body, normally the contralateral limb Learning with the contralateral limb will be easier than initial learning The better the skill level in the ‘original’ limb, the better the transfer Bilateral transfer is aided by knowledge of the principles involved in the movement May also be aided by ipsilateral neural pathways Left side of the brain controls right side of the body and vice versa but some nerves do not cross over, thus forming ipsilateral neural pathways These send neural messages, albeit weak ones, to the limbs on the same side of the body These weak traces mean that the person is not starting from scratch when learning with the opposite limb

Feedback Feedback is information resulting from an action or response It can be visual, proprioceptive, vestibular or auditory Intrinsic or inherent feedback is available to the performer without outside help Extrinsic or augmented feedback is information that is provided for us by some ‘foreign’ body There are two major forms of feedback Knowledge of results Knowledge of the outcome of the action Knowledge of performance Knowledge of the nature of the movement e.g. feel of the movement

MECHANICAL AIDS TO FEEDBACK Device Uses Video and high speed film (with or without automated systems linked to computer) limb angles; limb speed; limb position Force platforms contact forces (normally foot-ground contact); changes in momentum; velocity Electromyographs changes in muscle activity during performance; muscle force; muscle fatigue Isokinetic dynamometry dynamic movement of a joint during performance; muscle function; muscle endurance Electrogoniometry angular position and displacement of limbs Accelerators acceleration of limbs; acceleration of whole body MECHANICAL AIDS TO FEEDBACK

Timing of feedback repeat skill performance feedback Feedback delay Post- feedback delay Inter-trial interval Length of feedback delay is of little importance. Interpolated activity can have a negative effect. Interpolated activity can have a negative effect. If length of delay is too short, the learner does not have time to create a new response.

Frequency of feedback Frequency Absolute frequency is the total number of feedback presentations received by the learner Relative frequency is the percentage of trials in which feedback is given 100% relative frequency can lead to dependency on the coach Fading technique Feedback is given less and less often as the athlete improves Bandwidth feedback The coach sets parameters for performance. If performance falls outside of the parameter, feedback is given If the performer is within the parameter or bandwidth, nothing is said This kind of feedback has generally, although not unequivocally, been seen to be the most beneficial

Precision of feedback Can be too precise or too general It must be meaningful to the learner There is an optimal level for each task and performer Beginners need prescriptive feedback They need to be told what to do in order to improve performance Experienced performers need descriptive feedback They can resolve the problem themselves

Practical implications Deciding on content for the season Must take into account Nature of the task Complexity Neurophysiological demands Abilities and skills of learners Also age, motivation levels Abilities and skills of the coach

Goal setting for the season Include the learner or learners in the process Goals then belong to them as much as to the coach The goals can be group goals or individual goals or both Goals should be challenging but attainable Goals need to be both long-term and short-term Long-term Can be for the season or several seasons Short-term should be stepping-stones to the long-term goals They should be measurable (can be a subjective form of measurement) They should be flexible May need to be changed if things are not progressing as planned Can be outcome goals or performance goals Performance goals are best suited to beginners

The practice session Be aware of the learners’ characteristics Age - skill level - learning styles – experience – motivation Be aware of the nature of the task Complexity – neurophysiologcal factors Choose the type of practice based on the factors outlined above Choose types of instruction and feedback based on the factors outlined above