What Is Learning? Learning is a relatively permanent change in human capabilities that is not a result of growth processes. These capabilities are related to specific learning outcomes.

Issues in Learning & Instruction

Issues ... Outcomes Conditions Motivation Adult Learning Theory Individual Differences Learning Processes

Outcomes

What is to be Learned? Gagne’s Instructional Theory of Learning Outcomes Intellectual skills Procedural knowledge Verbal information Declarative information Cognitive strategies Knowing when & how to use 1 & 2 above Motor skills Attitudes

Learning Outcomes Verbal information Intellectual skills Includes names or labels, facts, and bodies of knowledge Includes specialized knowledge employees need in their jobs Intellectual skills Include concepts and rules These are critical to solve problems, serve customers, and create products

Learning Outcomes (continued) Motor skills Include coordination of physical movements Attitudes Combination of beliefs and feeling that pre-dispose a person to behave a certain way Important work-related attitudes include job satisfaction, commitment to the organization, and job involvement Cognitive strategies Regulate the process of learning

Domains of Educational Activities Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognitive: mental skills (Knowledge) Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude) Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Cognitive Domain Knowledge: Comprehension: Application: Analysis: Synthesis: Evaluation: The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills. This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns, and concepts that serve in the development of intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, which are listed in order below, starting from the simplest behavior to the most complex. The categories can be thought of as degrees of difficulties. That is, the first one must be mastered before the next one can take place. Knowledge: Recall data or information. Comprehension: Understand the meaning, translation, interpolation, and interpretation of instructions and problems. State a problem in one's own words. Application: Use a concept in a new situation or unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was learned in the classroom into novel situations in the work place. Analysis: Separates material or concepts into component parts so that its organizational structure may be understood. Distinguishes between facts and inferences. Synthesis: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure. Evaluation: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.

Affective Domain Receiving Phenomena: Responding to Phenomena: Valuing: Organization: Internalizing values (characterization): This domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. The five major categories listed the simplest behavior to the most complex: Receiving Phenomena: Awareness, willingness to hear, selected attention. Responding to Phenomena: Active participation on the part of the learners. Attends and reacts to a particular phenomenon. Learning outcomes may emphasize compliance in responding, willingness to respond, or satisfaction in responding (motivation). Valuing: The worth or value a person attaches to a particular object, phenomenon, or behavior. This ranges from simple acceptance to the more complex state of commitment. Valuing is based on the internalization of a set of specified values, while clues to these values are expressed in the learner�overt behavior and are often identifiable. Organization: Organizes values into priorities by contrasting different values, resolving conflicts between them, and creating an unique value system. The emphasis is on comparing, relating, and synthesizing values. Internalizing values (characterization): Has a value system that controls their behavior. The behavior is pervasive, consistent, predictable, and most importantly, characteristic of the learner. Instructional objectives are concerned with the student's general patterns of adjustment (personal, social, emotional).

Psychomotor Domain Perception: Set: Guided Response: Mechanism: Complex Overt Response: Adaptation: Origination: The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor- skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution. The seven major categories listed the simplest behavior to the most complex: Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation. Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person�response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing. Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency. Complex Overt Response: The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance. For example, players are often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football, because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce. Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem. Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

Other Psychomotor Domains -- Dave’s Imitation: Manipulation: Precision: Articulation: Naturalization: Imitation: Observing and patterning behavior after someone else. Performance may be of low quality. Example: Copying a work of art. Manipulation: Being able to perform certain actions by following instructions and practicing. Example: Creating work on one's own, after taking lessons, or reading about it. Precision: Refining, becoming more exact. Few errors are apparent. Example: Working and reworking something, so it will be "just right." Articulation: Coordinating a series of actions, achieving harmony and internal consistency. Example: Producing a video that involves music, drama, color, sound, etc. Naturalization: Having high level performance become natural, without needing to think much about it. Examples: Michael Jordan playing basketball, Nancy Lopez hitting a golf ball, etc. Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioural Objectives. (R J Armstrong, ed.) Educational Innovators Press.

Other Psychomotor Domains -- Harrow’s Involuntary movement - Fundamental movements - Perception - Physical abilities - Skilled movements - No discursive communication - Involuntary movement - reaction Fundamental movements - basic movements Perception - response to stimuli Physical abilities - stamina that must be developed for further development Skilled movements - advanced learned movements No discursive communication - effective body language Harrow, A. (1972) A taxonomy of psychomotor domain -- a guide for developing behavioral objectives. New York: David McKay.

Conditions

Conditions for Learning Practice Learning Automaticity Self-regulation Mental models Feedback Meaningfulness Modeling

Practice Active Repeated Spaced, distributed

Metacognition … refers to individual control over one’s thinking

2 Ways Individuals Engage in Metacognition Monitoring Identifying problem or task Evaluating one’s own learning progress Predicting what will occur as a result of learning Control Identifying the specific steps for completing a task or solving a problem Deciding how quickly or how much attention to devote to the task Deciding how to prioritize learning

Learning Whole Part

Automaticity Performance that requires limited attention --> parallel processing, quick, efficient performance Overlearning extra learning opportunities even after mastery demonstrated

Self-Regulation Checking one’s own performance

Mental Models Organizing material Experts vs. novices Mnemonics Organizers advanced comparative

Feedback Knowledge of results Related issues: perception source credibility frequency negative delayed individual needs

Meaningfulness Linking training to employees’ job experiences and tasks

Modeling Learning by observing and interacting with others

What learning condition do you think is most necessary for learning to occur? Which is least critical? Why?

Conditions Practice Learning Automaticity Self-regulation Mental models Feedback Meaningfulness Modeling

Internal and External Conditions Necessary for Learning Outcomes (1 of 2) Internal Conditions External Conditions Verbal Information (Labels, facts, and propositions) Previously learned knowledge and verbal information Strategies for coding information into memory Repeated practice Meaningful chunks Advance organizers Recall cues Intellectual Skills (Knowing how) Link between new and previously learned knowledge Cognitive Strategies (Process of thinking and learning) Recall of prerequisites, similar tasks, and strategies Verbal description of strategy Strategy demonstration Practice with feedback Variety of tasks that provide opportunity to apply strategy

Internal and External Conditions Necessary for Learning Outcomes (2 of 2) Internal Conditions External Conditions Attitudes (Choice of personal action) Mastery of prerequisites Identification with model Cognitive dissonance Demonstration by a model Positive learning environment Strong message from credible source Reinforcement Motor Skills (Muscular actions) Recall of part skills Coordination program Practice Demonstration Gradual decrease of external feedback

Motivating Learners

Factors Determining Performance Motivation Knowledge Skills Attitudes Environment Performance P = M x KSA x E

What Does Motivation DO? Focuses behavior on goal directed activity. It determines: The strength of our response How much effort we expend, and How long we persist

Factors Influencing Motivation to Learn Self-efficacy Benefits/ Consequences Needs & Goals Environment situation constraints social support Basic Skills reading writing math communication computers

Useful Motivation Theories Goal Setting Reinforcement Need Expectancy Social (Cognitive) Learning Information Processing Self-efficacy

Resistance to Learning Environmental factors Peer support Supervisor support Climate for learning Transfer back to the job Individual factors Cognitive ability Goal setting KSA base Valences Anxiety Goal orientation

Adult Learning Theory

Adult Learning Theory Adult learning theory was developed out of a need for a specific theory of how adults learn. It is based on several assumptions: Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. Adults have a need to be self-directed.

Adult Learning Theory - 2 Assumptions continued: Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation. Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning. Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators.

Assumptions of Adult Learning Theory Adults have the need to know why they are learning something. Immediate application of content Adults have a need to be self-directed. Mutual planning and collaboration in instruction Adults bring more work-related experiences into the learning situation. Use learner experience as basis for examples and applications Adults enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning. Instead of subject – centered Adults are motivated to learn by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. Develop instruction based on learner’s interests and competencies

Individual Differences

Learning Styles

Learning Styles Diverger Converger Assimilator Accommodator Concrete experience Reflective observation Assimilator Abstract conceptualization Converger Abstract conceptualization Active experimentation Accommodator Concrete experience

Learning Styles Visual Auditory Kinesthetic/Tactile

The Seven Intelligences Visual - the ability to Physical - the ability see things in your mind Physical - the ability to use your body well Verbal - the ability to use words Musical - the ability to understand and use music Mathematical & logical - the ability to apply logic to systems and numbers Interpersonal - the ability to relate well to others, people smarts Introspective - the ability to understand thoughts and feelings in yourself From Howard Gardner’s Frames of Mind

The Learning Process

The Learning Process This material asks three questions: What are the physical and mental processes involved in learning? How does learning occur? Do trainees have different learning styles?

Mental and Physical Processes Expectancy Gratifying Perception Working Storage LEARNING Generalizing Semantic Encoding Retrieval Long –Term Storage

Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction: (1 of 2) Employees need to know why they should learn Employees need meaningful training content Employees need opportunities to practice Employees need to commit training content to memory Employees need feedback

Implications of the Learning Process for Instruction: (2 of 2) Employees learn through: Observation Experience Interacting with others Employees need the training program to be properly coordinated and arranged

Factors Affecting Motivation to Learn and Transfer of Training Cognitive Ability Knowledge Acquisition Skill Acquisition Self- Efficacy Valence of Outcomes Motivation to Learn Training Training Reactions Transfer To the Job Job Performance Anxiety Post-Training Self-Efficacy Climate for Transfer Supervisor and Peer Support