Ecological Hotspots  Observed and predicted loss of biodiversity over the years = sixth extinction  Loss of biodiversity permanent  Conservation biology therefore very important  Identification of areas under sever threat of permanent loss  “Hotspots” origin

Evolution of the term: Hotspot  Norman Myers-first to develop concept  Geographical regions that deserved conservation priority  High numbers of endemic (rare) species in relatively small areas  First 10 hotspots were identified-all tropical rainforest, plants were indicators for diversity  Myers then added a further 8 hotspots (Mediterranean-type ecosystems added)  High species number or high degree of endemism or under huge threat or combination of factors

Evolution of the term:Hotspot (Cont.)  A consequent analysis resulted in 25 hotspots  A minimum number of plant species was required to be analyzed  Two criteria: endemism and degree of threat  Not just “pristine” vegetation included- fragmented vegetation included  Mammal, bird, reptile and amphibian endemism and diversity patterns also analyzed  Hotspots covered much more diverse terrestrial ecosystems  A further 9 hotspots has been added but is currently still being peer-reviewed

The 34 Terrestrial Hotspots Biodiversity Hotspots Biodiversity Hotspots

The 34 Terrestrial Hotspots (Cont.) 1)Atlantic Forest 2) California Floristic Province 3)Cape Floristic Province 4)Caribbean Islands 5)Caucasus 6)Brazilian Cerrado 7)Central Chile 8)Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 9)East Melanesian Islands 10)Eastern African Afromantane 11)Guinean Forests of West Africa 12)Himalayas 13)Horn of Africa 14)Indo-Burma 15)Irano-Anatolia 16)Japan 17)Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands 18)Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands 19)Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany 20)Mediterranean Basin 21) Mesoamerica 22) Mountains of Central Asia 23)Hengduan Mountains of Southwest China 24)New Caledonia 25)New Zealand 26)Philippines 27) Polynesia-Micronesia 28)Southwest Australia 29) Succulent Karoo 30) Sundaland 31) Tropical Andes 32) Tumbès-Chocò-Magdalena 33) Wallacea 34) Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

The 11 Marine Hotspots  Major limitation to present hotspot analysis  Lack of marine realm-purely terrestrial based  Study of marine ecosystems based on coral reefs  Hotspots located entirely within tropics  Study presented not yet comprehensive  Research is still on going  Although many marine hotspots extend from terrestrial hotspots=extension

The 11 Marine Hotspots (Cont.)

1)Philippines 2)Sundaland Islands 3)Wallacea 4)Gulf of Guinea 5)Southern Mascarene Islands 6)Eastern South Africa 7)North Indian Ocean 8)Southern Japan, Taiwan and Southern China 9)Cape Verde Islands 10)Western Caribbean 11)Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

Tropical Regions  More specifically tropical forests-renowned for housing the most biologically diverse ecosystems  Occurs between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn  Share characteristics: climate, precipitation, canopy structure, complex symbiotic relationships  Stable climate  Canopy-provides array of niches  Holds up to 50% of planet’s species

Tropical Regions-High Diversity  “ Latitudinal gradient in species diversity”-increases from poles to equator  Hypotheses: energy/climate based hypotheses and historical/evolutionary base hypotheses  Energy/climate-species based–energy and climate stability hypothesis  Historical/evolutionary based- historical changes and evolutionary rate hypothesis  These hypotheses do however have critiques and need further research to be fully accepted  Other hypotheses do exist  This latitudinal gradient is also observed in the marine realm

High Concentration of Hotspots in Equatorial Regions  High diversity compared to temperate and polar regions- latitudinal gradient hypothesis  High degree of endemism in tropical regions  Restricted to relatively small land areas  Most tropical regions are under sever threat-mainly due to social and economical issues  Severe habitat loss and destruction  Tropical forests once covered 12% of Earth's surface-now reduced to a mere 5% (maybe even less)  Vanishing at disturbingly high rates  Therefore most of world’s hotspots found within tropical regions

Distribution of Endemic (rare) Terrestrial Species and Freshwater Fish-Plants  Tropical Andes Hotspot contains endemic plant species  Sundaland Hotspot also contains endemic plant species  Together these hotspots harbor nearly 14% of all vascular plants found on the planet  Cape Floral Kingdom contains the world’s greatest concentration of non-tropical endemic plant species otspots.org/xp/Hotspots/ biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots

Distribution of Endemic (rare) Terrestrial Species and Freshwater Fish-Mammals  Sundaland hotspot contains the highest number of endemic mammals-172 species, 17 genera  Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands hotspot houses 144 endemic mammals species- world's leader in endemic primates houses 5 endemic lemur families  Wallacea hotspot – 127 endemic mammal speciesbiodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots

Distribution of Endemic (rare) Terrestrial Species and Freshwater Fish-Birds  Tropical Andes hotspot harbors 579 endemic bird species  This hotspot contains all or parts of 21 different Endemic Bird Areas  This high degree of endemism does not compare to any other area in the world  Wallacea hotspot –262 endemic bird species which is astonishing because of its relatively small land biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots

Distribution of Endemic (rare) Terrestrial Species and Freshwater Fish-Reptiles  Caribbean Islands hosts the largest number of endemic reptiles-469 species  Two examples of entirely endemic genera (both snakes) include: Tropidophis sp.(all 26 species endemic) and Alsophis sp.(all 13 species endemic)  The Madagascar and Indian Ocean Islands harbors 367 reptile species and is a major center of chameleon diversity biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots

Distribution of Endemic (rare) Terrestrial Species and Freshwater Fish-Amphibians and Freshwater Fish  The Tropical Andes hotspot is the most significant area in the world concerning amphibian diversity as it hosts 980 species of which 670 are endemic  The Mesoamerica hotspot contains 358 endemic amphibian species  The Eastern Afromontane hotspot, where the Great Rift lakes reside, is home to 617 endemic freshwater fish  The Indo-Burma hotspot houses 553 endemic freshwater fish species, 30 endemic genera and 1 endemic family

Threats  Social and economic threats=habitat loss and degradation  Major cause-exponential human population growth  Increase in foreign debt loads  Decrease funds available for conservation  Poverty  Over hunting and illegal pet trade

Threats (Cont.)  Human impact overwhelming  Pollution  Introduction of invasive alien species  Unsustainable use and management of biodiversity (commercial exploitation)  Climate change-global warming  Global warming most probably the most enveloping threat as it has the ability to affect areas out of range of humans  Future predictions state that hotspots could lose between 39-43% of biodiversity  Lack of efficient practical protection

Threats (Cont.)  Marine hotspots have specific threats  Destructive fishing methods  Over exploitation of fish stocks (unsustainable use)  Pollution from urban and agricultural runoff  Pollution from sediment logging  Live fish trade  Oil spills from tankers  Coastal and agricultural development

Conservation  Priority-identification of regions under severe threat of extinction which is why hotspots originated  Protection of areas through establishment of reserves, national parks, botanical gardens, heritage sites, wildlife refuges, etc…  Incentive measures are essential for conservation  Regulations and market based tools are also used  Increase in new conservation tools and conservation professionals promote action against biodiversity loss  Unique projects- Working for water  Ecotourism-mutually beneficial