Chapter 8 – Motivation and Empowerment Damon Burton University of Idaho

What is motivation?

MOTIVATION Motivation – is the internal and external forces that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. Motivational Consequences – focus, effort/intensity, persistence in face of failure or adversity.

MOTIVATION Early motivation theories focused on need fulfillment Today’s motivation models focus on goal attainment, so helping people reach their goals results in high motivation. A Gallup Survey found that when employee motivation was high and performing well, customers are 70% more loyal, turnover drops by 70% and profits jump 40%.

NEED-BASED MODEL OF MOTIVATION Need Creates desire to fulfill needs (money, friendship, recognition, & achievement Behavior Results in actions to fulfill needs Rewards Satisfy needs: intrinsic or extrinsic rewards Feedback Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used again

What is intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?

INTRINSIC VS EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION Intrinsic motivation – is the internal enjoyment and satisfaction a person receives from performing for its own sake. Oprah’s intrinsic motivation (IM) comes from serving others by uplifting, enlightening, encouraging and transforming how people see themselves. Extrinsic motivation – is externally driven and results from a desire to get rewards such as recognition, fame, money, power or prestige.

INTRINSIC MOTIVATION DEFINED Intrinsic motivation – engaging in an activity for its own sake, particularly the pleasure and satisfaction derived from playing. For example, a girl who skis because of the fun she has doing what she wants, challenging herself by trying new things and being with her friends skiing new powder on the mountain.

COMPONENTS OF INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Competence – feeling talented and skilled, Autonomy – in control, self-determining, & doing what you want, and Relatedness – feeling connected and enjoying relationships with others.

EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION DEFINED Extrinsic motivation – engaging in behaviors in order to attain contingent outcomes beyond of the activity itself (i.e., rewards, fame, prestige, etc) For example,,a boy plays basketball to be recognized, get their names in the paper and win a college scholarship.

EXTRINSIC REWARDS Systemwide Rewards – apply the same to all people within an organization or within a specific category or department. Individual Rewards – differ among people within the same organization or department. Extrinsic motivation is effective over the short-term, but intrinsic motivation promotes better long-term motivation.

EXAMPLES OF INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC REWARDS Individual Large merit increase Feeling of self-fulfillment Pride in being part of a “winning” organization Systemwide Insurance benefits

SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY (SDT) SDT describes the social factors that will promote intrinsic motivation and internalized forms of extrinsic motivation. Autonomy is necessary to attain true competence and relatedness. SDT determines how extrinsic rewards will influence intrinsic motivation.

SELF DETERMINATION CONTINUUM Low High 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation Amotivation Amotivation External Regulation 3. Introjected Regulation 4. Identified Regulation 5. Intrinsic Motivation to Experience Stimulation 6. Intrinsic Motivation to Accomplish 7. Intrinsic Motivation to Know

What social factors influence intrinsic motivation?

SOCIAL FACTORS REDUCING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Social factors reducing intrinsic motivation include: competition, evaluation/feedback and rewards. Competition reduces IM Winning and playing well enhances IM whereas losing and playing poorly lowers IM. Positive feedback increases IM while negative feedback reduces IM. Rewards can both raise and lower IM in different situations.

How do rewards influence intrinsic motivation?

LEPPER & GREENE (1968) REWARD STUDY Baseline 1 – monitored amount of time preschoolers played with markers during free-play time Expected Reward Group – promised reward & received one Unexpected Reward Group – not promised reward but received one Control Group – not promised reward and didn’t receive one. Baseline 2 – monitored time played with markers during free-play time.

PERCEPTIONS KEY TO HOW MESSAGE INTERPRETED How athletes perceive the reason rewards are given is the key to IM. Autonomy is necessary to develop strong competence and relatedness. If rewards are view as controlling, it lowers feelings of competence and relatedness too, reducing IM. If rewards are viewed as informational about competence, autonomy and IM must be high as well.

HOW DO REWARDS IMPACT INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Reward impact not determined by number or size of rewards. Impact determined by “message” behind the reward. How well does the reward enhance perceptions of competence, autonomy and relatedness?

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION EM + IM = TOTAL MOTIVATION (TM) IM = TM EM If EM lowers perceived competence, autonomy and/or relatedness, IM and TM decline. If EM increases perceived competence, autonomy and/or relatedness, IM and TM improve. 1 2

REWARDS PROMOTING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Contingent Rewards – received for attaining a standard of excellence (e.g., trophy for winning a tourney) Noncontingent Rewards – no standard of excellence (e.g., winning lottery) Contingent rewards normally increase IM because they increase feelings of competence and autonomy. Noncontingent rewards reduce IM.

What factors promote intrinsic motivation?

FACTORS PROMOTING INTRINSIC MOTIVATION “Autonomy support” from coaches, parents and peers, The competitive structure of the league (i.e., varsity versus intramural sports) Motivational climate – mastery versus outcome

GOAL MODEL OF MOTIVATION (Antecedents) (Consequences) Beliefs about Goal Motivational Talent Orientations Patterns Capacity Ego-Involved Success- & or Outcome Failure-Oriented Learning Task-Involved Performance- or Performance Oriented

BELIEFS ABOUT TALENT & INTELLIGENCE Capacity beliefs – intelligence and sport ability are fixed and unchangeable. The worst thing is to look dumb or incompetent Talent is measured now and far into the future. Learning beliefs – intelligence and talent are changeable and controllable. The worst thing is to not learn. Talent is measured for the present but not for the future.

ROLE OF EFFORT IN TALENT BELIEFS Capacity beliefs – high ability means you shouldn’t have to work hard. They feel smart when others struggle. They perceive a negative relationship between effort and performance. Learning beliefs – hard work always is necessary to reach your potential. They feel smart when they help others or bring out the best in others. They perceive a positive relationship between effort and performance. Effort will get your somewhere better as long as you work hard.

BELIEFS PREDICT JUNIOR HIGH TRANSITION 7th grade important transition that is stressful to adolescents because work gets suddenly harder, workload becomes greater, grading is more stringent, grades become more important and instruction is less personalized.

HOW ARE BELIEFS DEVELOPED? Feedback patterns have a major impact on beliefs. If feedback focuses on traits (e.g., you’re very talented) to explain success or lack of talent to explain failure, capacity beliefs develop. If feedback focuses on effort and strategy as the keys to success and failure, learning beliefs develop

WHAT ARE MOTIVATIONAL STYLES? Motivational Styles – are specific motivational patterns adopted by performers based on their beliefs about talent, how they define success/failure (i.e., place highest priority on outcome versus process/performance goals) and perceived competence. These motivational patterns have a profound impact of Flow, long- term development and performance. 30

MOTIVATIONAL STYLES mastery-oriented success-seekers or success-oriented failure-avoiders or failure-oriented 31

MASTERY-ORIENTED (MO) Process and performance goals are given highest priority in defining success. They feel successful when they learn, improve and master tasks. Perceived competence doesn’t influence MO performers as long as they believe they can learn and get better. 32

FAILURE AVOIDERS (FA) Outcome goals are given highest priority in defining success. They feel successful when they win and socially compare well. FAs normally have low perceived competence because they lose often. Motivation eventually switches from striving for success to trying to avoid failure. 33

SUCCESS-SEEKERS (SS) Outcome goals are given highest priority in defining success. They feel successful when they win and socially compare well. FAs normally have high perceived competence because they win or place high often. 34

MASTERY-ORIENTED Outlook about Competition – positive and optimistic Attributions for Success – effort Attributions for Failure – effort Effort Expenditure – consistently maximal effort, Task Choice – very difficult tasks or opponents, and Response to Failure – great persistence that prompts increases effort and improves problem solving 35

FAILURE-AVOIDERS Outlook about Competition – negative and pessimistic, Attributions for Success – luck or an easy task, Attributions for Failure – lack of ability, Effort Expenditure – low on moderate difficulty task and high on easy tasks, Task Choice – very easy or very difficult tasks or opponents, and Response to Failure – give up quickly and quit trying; will drop out if they can. 36

SUCCESS-SEEKERS Outlook about Competition – positive and optimistic, Attributions for Success – high ability, Attributions for Failure – effort, Effort Expenditure – just high enough effort to win, Task Choice – moderately difficult tasks, and Response to Failure – moderate persistence as long as they think they can win, prompting increased effort and improved problem solving 37

What are higher- versus lower-order needs?

HIGHER VERSUS LOWER NEEDS Intrinsic motivation promotes “higher needs” such as need for accomplishment, competence, fulfillment and self-determination. Extrinsic motivation promotes “lower needs” such as material comfort and basic safety. Leaders versus managers have different needs and motivational methods.

NEEDS OF PEOPLE AND MOTIVATION METHODS Conventional Management Leadership Lower Needs Higher Needs Carrot and Stick (Extrinsic) Empowerment (Intrinsic) Growth and Fulfillment Control People Best Effort Adequate Effort

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY Need Hierarchy Fulfillment on the Job Opportunities for advancement, autonomy, growth, creativity Self-Actualization Needs Esteem Needs Recognition, approval, high status, increased responsibilities Belongingness Needs Work groups, clients, coworkers, supervisors Safety Needs Safe work, fringe benefits, job security Physiological Needs Heat, air, base salary

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY Physiological, safety and belonging needs are deficiency needs which take priority over higher-order needs. Needs must be satisfied in a hierarchical fashion, with physiological first and self-actualization last. Higher-order needs become important only when low-order needs have been satisfied.

What is Herzberg’s 2-factor theory?

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY Based on worker interviews of times when they were highly motivated versus unmotivated, Herzberg developed his two-factor theory. Leaders must both remove dissatisfiers and use motivators to meet higher-order needs.

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Highly Satisfied Motivators Achievement Recognition Responsibility Work itself Personal growth Motivators influence level of satisfaction Area of Satisfaction Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied Hygiene Factors Work conditions Pay/security Company policies Supervisors Area of Dissatisfaction Hygiene factors influence level of dissatisfaction Interpersonal relationships Highly Dissatisfied

McCLELLAND’S NEED ACHIEVEMENT THEORY Need for achievement – the desire to accomplish something difficult, attain a high standard of success, master complex tasks and surpass others. Need for affiliation – the desire to form close personal relationships, avoid conflict and establish warm friendships. Need for power – the desire to influence or control others, be responsible for others and have authority over others.

What is Expectancy Theory?

KEY ELEMENTS OF EXPECTANCY THEORY Will putting effort into the task lead to the desired performance? E > P expectancy Effort Performance Ability, experience, information & opportunity to perform Will high performance lead to the desired outcomes? P > O expectancy Performance Outcomes Valence – value of outcomes (pay, recognition, other rewards) Are the available outcomes highly valued? Motivation

The End The End