Section One: The Skeleton Functional Anatomy Section One: The Skeleton

Functions of a Skeleton The skeleton performs 5 basic functions: FUNCTION EXPLANATION EXAMPLES MOVEMENT Where bones meet we form joints. In combination with muscles, we create movement. Bones move because of joints and muscles, e.g. elbow moved by biceps PROTECTION Provide protection to vital organs Scapula – lungs Skull – brain SUPPORT Give support for organs and tissue so they do not collapse. Spine supports the head and trunk STORAGE Minerals are stored in bones Storage of calcium and potassium SUPPLY Red and white blood cells are produced in bone marrow Femur produces red blood cells

1.5 Identifying Bones of the Skeleton As a pre-test, try naming as many bones as possible on the skeleton below. Use common or anatomical terms. Cranium (skull) Vertebrae – cervical (neck) Sternum (breastbone) Ribs (ribcage) Vertebrae – lumbar (lower back) Pelvis (hip) = Ilium, Ischium & Pubis Metacarpals (palm) Phalanges (fingers) Tibia (shin)

Maxilla (face) Mandible (jaw) Scapula (shoulder blade) Clavicle (collarbone) Ulna (forearm) Humerus (upper arm) Radius (forearm) Femur (thigh) Fibula (shin) Patella (knee cap) Tarsal (heel) Metatarsals (foot) Phalanges (toes)

2. THE RIBCAGE Ribs (common name = ribs) 12 pairs in all. Designed to protect the heart and lungs Rib 3. THE CHEST A. Sternum (common name = breast bone ) Protects the heart and lungs. It is the bone pressed on in C.P.R.

4. THE SPINE Cervical vertebrae. These are small delicate bones responsible for neck movement. There are seven bones in all. Thoracic vertebrae. Allow ribs to attach to the spine hence there are 12 of them (one for each rib pair). Lumbar vertebrae. These are the largest of the vertebrae and are responsible for weight-bearing. There are five in all. The sacrum (upper) and coccyx (lower) are a series of fused (joined) bones that help form the pelvis.

What do the shapes of the bones tell you about their function? Those that are larger have a roll in weight or load bearing e.g. lumbar and thoracic. Smaller ones are important for movement e.g. cervical. 5. THE SHOULDER A. Scapula (common name = shoulder blade ) Protects the lungs. Forms shoulder joint. B. Clavicle (common name = collarbone) Holds the shoulder in place. Easily broken. B A

6. THE ARM A. Humerus (common name = upper arm ) Prime function is movement. B. Radius (common name = Forearm ) Prime function is movement, always located on thumb-side of forearm. C. Ulna (common name = forearm ) D. Carpels (common name = wrist ) E. Metacarpels (common name = palms ) F. Phalanges (common name = Fingers ) A B C D E F

A. Femur (common name = thigh ) Largest bone in the body, responsible for support and movement. B. Patella (common name = knee cap ) Protects the knee joint. C. Tibia (common name = shin ) Support and movement. D. Fibula (common name = shin) ‘Thinner’ bone of leg. Support and movement. E. Tarsels (common name = ankle) Bones of the ankle and heel. Support and balance. F. Metatarsels (common name = foot) Form the sole of the foot. Support and balance. G. Phalanges (common name = toes) Support, movement and balance. 8. THE LEG A B C D E F G

Section Three: The Joints Functional Anatomy Section Three: The Joints

3.2. Overview of Joint Types There are three broad categories of joint type in the body. They are classed according to the degree of movement possible. The three categories are: 1. Immovable Also known as fibrous joints 2. Slightly movable Also known as cartilaginous joints 3. Freely movable Also known as synovial joints We shall look at all these categories in turn.

3.3 Fibrous Joints These are non-movable joints. They are the result of tough fibrous tissue forming where the two bone ends meet. What is the function of a fibrous joint? To provide protection. Examples include: 1. Skull 2. Pelvis Fibrous joint

3.4 Cartilaginous Joint These are slightly-movable joints. They are the result of cartilage forming where the two bone meet. This gives a fair degree of resilience. What is the function of a cartilaginous joint? To act as shock absorbers. Examples include: 1. Invertebral discs 2. Ribs to sternum 3.Where pubic bones meet Cartilaginous Joints

3.5 Synovial Joint These are freely movable joints. The only limitation in range of movement is as a result of bone shape at the joint, and ligaments. What is the primary function of a synovial joint? To provide movement. All synovial joints follow the same basic structure as shown

The key components of your illustration have important roles to play in maintaining the structure of the joint. Ligaments Join bone to bone for stability 2. Capsule Provides stability and protection from infection 3. Cartilage Reduce wear and tear on bones 4. Synovial Fluid Lubricates the joint and provides shock absorption 5. Synovial Membrane Produces synovial fluid In some joints, for example the knee, there are pads of fat and/or discs of cartilage to further help absorb shock and reduce general ‘wear and tear’.

3.6 Types of Synovial Joints Synovial joints can be divided into six basic types. The types are governed by the type of movement or movements they allow. The six basic types are: Gliding Hinge Pivot Condyloid Saddle Ball and Socket

1. Gliding Definition: The bone surfaces are small and flat, or slightly concave and one bones slides over the other. Examples: 1. Carpals and tarsals 2. Ribs and vertebrae 3. Scapula and ribs Movements: Only slight movement is possible due to the restrictions of attached ligaments. Movements possible are: 1. side to side (abduction / adduction) 2. Back and forth (extension/flexion)

2. Hinge Definition: Two bones join in such a way that movement is possible only in one direction, usually at right angles to the bones. Examples: 1. Elbow 2. Knee 3. Ankle Movements: A uniaxial joint allowing movement in only one direction The only movement possible is: Back and forth (extension/flexion)

3. Pivot Definition: A joint constructed in such a way that rotation only is possible (usually about the long axis of the bone) Examples: 1. Atlas and axis of neck 2. Radius and humerous Movements: A uniaxial joint allowing movement in only one direction The only movement possible is: Rotation

6. Ball and Socket Definition: A ball-shaped bone end fits into a socket or cup-shaped bone. Examples: 1. Hip 2. Shoulder Movements: A multiaxial joint allowing movement in many directions around the joint. The movements possible are: 1. Back and forth (extension/flexion) 2. Side to side (abduction/adduction) 3. Rotation 4. Circumduction

The shoulder joint is the most freely moving ball and socket joint we have. The illustration may help you with your answer. Why is the shoulder joint so freely moving? Because the socket is shallow. What do you suppose is the risk of such a freely moving joint? It is easy to dislocate.

3.7. Movements at Synovial Joints Just as we learnt a set of terms to describe the positioning of bones, muscles and organs in the body, so we have a set of terms to describe how joints move. Term Definition Examples Flexion Bending or decreasing the angle between two bones

Straightening or increasing the angle between two bones Term Definition Examples Extension Straightening or increasing the angle between two bones

Term Definition Examples Abduction Moving a limb or part of a limb away from the midline of the body Moving outwards on a star jump Adduction Moving a limb or part of a limb towards the midline of the body Bringing the limbs back together in a star jump Circumduction A combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction. The movement of the limb resembles the shape of a cone The arm stroke in Butterfly

Term Definition Examples Rotation Twisting of a limb about its long axis Turning the head Twisting the trunk Supination Movement of the hand into a palm-up position Holding a bowl of soup Turning a card over Turning a page in a book Pronation Movement of the hand into a palm-down position tipping the soup out Turning a card face down Closing a book

Term Definition Examples Inversion Movement of the sole of the foot inward Eversion Movement of the sole of the foot outward Dorsi flexion Movement of the top of the foot upward, closer to the shin Plantar flexion Movement of the sole of the foot downward

Underarm Volley ball serve Frame Joint Bones at the joint Movement or Position A Knee Femur (thigh) & Tibia (shin) Flexion Trunk (at hip) Pelvis (hip) & Femur A → D Right Shoulder Scapula (shoulder blade) & Humerus (upper arm) A → C Right Hip Extension Right Foot (at ankle) Tibia, Fibula (shin) & Tarsals (ankle) Plantarflexion Right Knee Femur & Tibia Right Hand (at wrist) Radius & Ulna (forearm) & Carpals (wrist) Slight (flexion) D Right Elbow Radius, Ulna & Humerus

Section Four: The Muscles Functional Anatomy Section Four: The Muscles

4.2 Identifying Muscles Trapezius Deltoid Biceps Triceps Pectoralis Major Latissimus Dorsi Rectus Abdominus Gluteus Maximus Hamstrings Quadriceps Gastrocnemius

4.3 Guide to Individual Muscles [A] PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK Rectus abdominus: Location : A group of two muscles running lengthwise along the medial aspect of the abdomen. They are rather like two columns of muscle running up either side of the belly button. They run from the pubis (pelvis) to the cartilage of the 5th, 6th and 7th ribs. Movements: Rectus abdominus allows two basic movements. 1. Flexion of the trunk 2. Lateral flexion of the trunk Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Sit ups 2. Cartwheels 3. Pike in diving Rectus Abdominus

2. Erector Spinae Group: [A] PRIME MOVERS OF THE TRUNK Location : One of the main muscles located in the lower back and one of the few visible. It runs from the pelvis to the lumbar vertebrae. Movements: Erector spinae group allows two basic movements. They are: 1. Extension of the spine 2. Lateral flexion of the trunk Application Typical sporting actions include: 1. Straightening out from a pike 2. Rowing 3. Swimming (body position) Erector Spinae

1. Trapezius: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER Location : A large triangular muscle located on the posterior aspect of the body. It runs in a triangular shape from the base of the skull, the 7th cervical vertebrae and all the thoracic vertebrae, to the scapula and clavicle. Movements: Trapezius allows four basic movements. They are: Raise the head Pull the shoulders back Raise the scapula 4. Drop the scapula Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Pulling shoulder when throwing 2. Rowing 3. Looking up in basketball Trapezius

2. Latissimus Dorsi: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER Location : The broadest muscle of the back. It forms the back of the armpit. This is a large triangular muscle which covers the lumbar and lower thoracic region of the back. It runs from the lower thoracic and lumber regions, to the anterior aspect of the humerus Movements: Latissimus dorsi allows three basic movements. They are: 1. Adduction of the upper arm 2. Extension of the shoulder 3. Internal rotation of the shoulder How can latissimus dorsi allow internal rotation of the shoulder to occur if it is a muscle located on the back? Because it attaches to the humerus Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Recovery in breaststroke 2. Ten-pin bowling 3. Drawing arm back to punch Latissimus dorsi

3. Deltoid: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER Location : A triangular shaped muscle located on the superior aspect of the shoulder i.e. above the shoulder joint It runs from the scapular and clavicle to attach at the humerus Movements: Deltoid allows four basic movements. They are: 1. Flexion of the shoulder 2. Extension of the shoulder 3. Abduction of the arm 4. Rotation of the shoulder Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Throwing 2. Punching 3. Swimming Deltoid

3. Pectoralis Major: [B] PRIME MOVERS OF THE SHOULDER Location : A large triangular muscle located on the chest. It runs from the clavicle, sternum and the 6th rib, to the humerus. Movements: Pectoralis major allows three basic movements. These are: 1. Flexion of the shoulder 2. Adduction of the arm 3. Rotation (internal) of the shoulder Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Throwing 2. Punching 3. Press-ups Pectoralis major

1. Biceps Brachii: [C] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW Location : A two-headed muscle (biceps) located on the anterior aspect of the humerus It runs from the scapular to the upper aspect of the radius Movements: Biceps allows two basic movements. They are: 1. Flexion of the elbow 2. Flexion of the shoulder Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Biceps curl 2. Rowing 3. Recovery in breaststroke Biceps Brachii

1. Triceps Brachii: [C] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ELBOW Location : A large muscle located on the posterior aspect of the humerus. It runs from the scapular, over the posterior aspect of the humerus, to the upper part of the ulna. Movements: Triceps allows two basic movements. These are: 1. Extension of the elbow 2. Extension of the shoulder Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Karate chop 2. Press-up 3. Punching Triceps Brachii

1. Flexor digitorum: [D] PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST Location : This is one of the main gripping muscles of the anterior aspect of the forearm. It runs mainly from the proximal aspect of the radius and ulna, over the anterior of the forearm, to attach to the fingers. Movements: Flexor digitorum has two basic movements. 1. Flex the fingers (make a fist) 2. Flex the wrist Application: Typical sporting actions include: Punching 2. Hold a racquet 3. Wrist ‘dink; in a set shot (volleyball) Flexor digitorum

2. Extensor digitorum: [D] PRIME MOVERS OF THE WRIST Location : This is one of the muscles in direct opposition to the flexor digitorum. It is located on the posterior aspect of the forearm. It runs over the posterior of the forearm, to attach to the fingers. Movements: Extensor digitorum allows two basic movements. 1. Extend the fingers 2. Extend the wrist Application: Typical sporting actions : 1. Karate chop 2. Fending in tackling 3. Set shot in (volleyball) Extensor digitorum

1. Illiopsoas: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE Location : This is a group of three muscles located deep inside the hip region. It runs from the lumbar vertebrae and pelvis to the upper femur. Movements: Illiopsoas allows one basic movement. This is: 1. Flexion of the hip Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Kicking 2. Running 3. Cycling

2. Gluteus Maximus: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE Location : This is a the large fleshy muscle that makes up your backside. You are probably sitting on it right now! It is an extremely powerful muscle. It is located on the posterior aspect of the hip running from the ilium (pelvis), sacrum and coccyx to the upper third of the femur. Movements: Gluteus maximus allows three basic movements. 1. Extension of the leg 2. Abduction of the leg 3. External rotation of the leg (rotating outwards) Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Kicking 2. Running 3. Jumping

3. Quadriceps: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE Location : This is a group of four (quad) muscles located on the anterior aspect of the thigh. The four muscles making up the quadriceps group are: 1. Rectus femoris 2. Vastus medialis 3. Vastus lateralis 4. Vastus intermedius (not shown) Movements: Quadriceps allows two basic movements. 1. Extension of the knee 2. Flexion of the hip Application: Typical sporting actions include: Kicking Running Jumping The Vastus intermedius is not shown because it lies under the Rectus femoris, so is not visible.

Consider the illustration Consider the illustration. Label the muscles of the quadriceps group you can identify. Rectus femoris Vastus lateralis Vastus Medialis

3. Hamstrings: [E] PRIME MOVERS OF THE HIP AND KNEE Location : This is a group of three muscles located on the posterior aspect of the thigh. Since they are in direct opposition to the quadriceps and are generally weaker they are prone to injury. The three muscles making up the hamstrings group are: 1. Semitendinosus 2. Biceps femoris 3. Semimembranosis Movements: Hamstrings allows two basic movements. These are: 1. Extension of the hip 2. Flexion of the knee Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Kicking 2. Running 3. Jumping

1. Gastroncnemius: [F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE Location : This is a the large fleshy muscle located on the posterior aspect of the lower leg. It runs from the distal aspect of the femur to the tarsal's (heel) via the Achilles tendon. Movements: Gastrocnemius allows two basic movements. These are: 1. Knee flexion 2. Plantar flexion Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Kicking 2. Pointing toes 3. Jumping

2. Soleus: [F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE Location : This muscle lies beneath gastrocnemius and serves largely the same function. It shares the Achilles tendon with gastrocnemius. It runs from the proximal aspect of both tibia and fibula to the same position as gastrocnemius on the heel Movements: Soleus allows one basic movements. 1. Plantar flexion Application: Typical sporting actions include: 1. Kicking 2. Pointing toes 3. Jumping

3. Tibialis anterior: [F] PRIME MOVERS OF THE ANLKE Location : This muscle is located on the anterior aspect of the lower leg. It lies mainly over the tibia and can be felt running along its sharp edge. It runs from the proximal aspect of the tibia to the toes. Movements: Tibialis anterior allows two basic movements. 1. Dorsi flexion 2. Inversion Application: Typical sporting actions include: Passing with the outside of the foot (soccer) Kicking (recovery) 3. Rowing

4.4 Agonists and Antagonists When muscles create movement, they tend to work in pairs. When one muscle (or group), contracts to generate the movement, the opposing muscle (or group) relaxes. This is known as Reciprocal Inhibition. Each muscle in the pair is labelled as either the agonist or antagonist. Agonist: The muscle that produces the movement. Agonists are also referred to as prime movers. Why? Because they are the main muscle producing movement (prime = main). Antagonist: This muscle that opposes motion

Consider the example of a bicep curl. The movement occurring at the elbow is flexion The agonist muscle would be biceps The antagonist muscle would be triceps The prime mover would be biceps When the person extends the arm i.e. to lower the weight: The agonist muscle would be triceps The antagonist muscle would be biceps What other role does the antagonist muscle play in the lowering of the weight? Controls the speed at which weight is lowered in order to help prevent injury.