Polar Landscapes

A Regional Approach All elements of physical geography integrated in the ecoregion approach of Robert Bailey, UCLA Geographer, U.S. Forest Service

For GCU 672 Organized by basic climate processes controlling precipitation and temperature Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – brings summer rains in equatorial & tropical latitudes Subtropical High – brings drought, annually or seasonally Polar Front – brings precipitation in the midlatitudes Polar Easterlies – the cold landscapes of tundra and ice caps

Organization 1st – climate 2nd – soils 3rd – landforms & hydrology 4th – biogeography with discussion of geology because geology plays an important role in deserts in defining meso-scale landform regions

Polar Climates

Dominated by Polar High Dense, cold air flows equatorward

Extreme Seasonal Changes 24 days in summer, 24 night in winter

Ice Cap Climate Mean monthly below zero

Ice Cap Climate Dominated by dry, frigid air masses Average temperature below freezing most or all year World’s coldest surface air is found in Antarctica in S. hemisphere winter Glaciers accumulate snow and ice despite low precipitation (<80mm/yr in Antarctica) Precipitation exceeds small evapotranspiration demand Examples: Antarctica, North Pole, Greenland

Classroom Resource Folder Online Video Resource Address Movie of Movement Of Arctic Sea Ice Classroom Resource Folder

Tundra Climate harsh winters low average temperatures little snow or rainfall too short summer season for trees. Influenced by permafrost, a layer of permanently frozen subsoil in the ground. The surface soil, which tends to be rocky, thaws in summer to varying depths. The combination of frozen ground and flat terrain impedes drainage of water. Held at the surface or soaking the upper layer of soil, the water forms ponds and bogs in low areas

Classroom Resources Alaska Animations – focus on Arctic tundra where get extremes of temperature & little precipitation

Soils Poorly Developed In Rocky Areas

Soils Experience overturning from permafrost activity

Soils: Position is very important Lowland soils: histosols Peat – plant accumulation Upland soils: entisols Poorly developed

In low-lying areas where water collects from permafrost melting, get accumulation of organic remains of plants called PEAT. Name for soils: histosol

Why does peat accumulate ? Production by plants exceeds decomposition Abundant growth due to available moisture during growing season Preservation of plants (cool conditions) Saturated conditions - slow, anaerobic decomposition by methanogenic bacteria When plants decay (with drying & warming), release of methane

Landforms & Hydrology Permafrost Ice Wedge Polygons Pingo Patterned Ground Solifluction Rocky Uplands Rivers

Permafrost Permanently frozen water in the ground

Underground mine in permafrost (Yakutsk, Permafrost Institute, Dr. P Underground mine in permafrost (Yakutsk, Permafrost Institute, Dr. P. Konstantinov

When thaws, creates “thermokarst” Pipelines Break Roads Cave In

Buildings Collapse if not properly insulated

Natural permafrost cycle

Northwest Territories

Northwest Territories

Pingo Northwest Territories

Pingo

Can grow as water moves to ice core

Patterned Ground – Rocky & Flat active layer “churning” sorts rocks

Northwest Territories

Solifluction: sloped ground in finer materials flows (oozes)

Kinnard Research, Excavation, Yukon

Topographic Position Rocky uplands patterned ground Low slopes solifluction lobes Lowlands ice wedge polygons

Rocky Uplands Felsenmeer – rock block field broken up by frost weathering

Steep slopes with lots of frost-weathered rock: Rock Glaciers Ice core & seasonal freeze/thaw moves rocks

Rivers Winter – frozen Spring – thaw Summer – very aggressive erosion

Breakup Timing http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

River Ice River ice is a unique aspect of Arctic Hydrology. All rivers experience some ice effect, yet in some instances, runoff events associated with river ice have produced extreme and dangerous flooding events. River Ice interacts and obstructs the passing of floods. The blockage causes water levels far higher than those experienced for the same flows under open water conditions.

YUKON RIV HARD LIFTED AND SHIFTED SHEETS Shifted ice – large ice sheets that have moved short distances from their original locations as rising water levels create wider areas of open water into which the ice can move http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

Reach of large moving sheets (nr breakup front) TYPICAL RUN OF ICE May be 10-20 miles in length Reach of large moving sheets (nr breakup front) Reach of mixed sheets, pans, and chunks Reach of mostly chunks Subsequent runs are mainly chunks http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

YUKON RIVER Ice run – a continuous length of moving ice http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

NULATO RIVER ICE JAM Ice jam – an ice run that has stopped moving due to any of a variety of reasons; this very small jam has broken sheet ice holding back a small run of chunk ice http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

ICE JAM IMPACTS Upstream from the jam... Fast water level rise Packed ice chunks Potential flooding http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

Flooding impact Water outside the channel http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

KUSKO RIV ANI VILLAGE FLOODING Village flood – water spreading into a village that covers roads or threatens buildings http://aprfc.arh.noaa.gov/rwpindex.php

Lena River Delta Yukon R. Delta

Biogeography

Cold & Dry

Effect of Latitude or Altitude Source: Solomon, 2000

Tundra -severe winters -short growing season, cool summer; too little warmth for tree growth -arctic or alpine

Small growing season Generates dwarf forms adapted to survive in Cold and Windy winters Dwarf Willow Dwarf Birch

Long, bitter-cold winters characterize the tundra The arctic tundra lies between the Boreal Forest and the permanently frozen polar regions It is a treeless biome characterized by extreme cold, wind, and permafrost Permafrost is continuously frozen subsoil

SNOW AND MICROCLIMATE The snow on top helps protect the tundra plants underneath from the worst of the cold above. When it is very cold outside, take a thermometer and measure the temperature underneath the snow, and you will see that it is quite a bit warmer! This helps not only the tundra, but small rodents such as the red-backed vole.

Arctic tundra Light and heat may not be the only limiting factors for plant growth Days are long and temperatures may reach the teens in summer Wind and moisture deficit are also important Thin, active layer holds limited moisture. Small, leathery leaves, closely spaced to protect stomata Hairs limit air circulation Flowers are small Plants often occur in tufts for protection Prostrate growth - stems spread out over ground with little vertical growth - especially willow

Lichens Common Food for Caribou Mutualism: Relationships between fungi and hosts that are mutually beneficial Fungal layer Algal layer Symbiosis: intimate association between two distantly, related species that are mutually benefiting from this association Fungal layer

Adaptations to Light Conditions -Perennials These plants come back every year. Short flowering & reproductive season Tundra Flowers

Low Arctic Tundra Extends north from treeline along a line from Northern Alaska to northern Quebec and southern Baffin Island (10 degree C isotherm) Cold, with low precipitation Nearly the entire area is underlain with permafrost Almost complete vegetation coverage (except unfavourable areas) Dominated by dwarf shrubs (birch and willow) Vegetation traps snow and provides shading from summer heating Peat accumulation at poorly-drained sites Any black spruce is very stunted and abraded by snow Major summer range and calving grounds of some of Canada's largest caribou herds

Mid Arctic Tundra Transitional band between high and low arctic Plant cover more than 50% in most areas but bare ground still exists locally Vascular plants more common than in high arctic - willow common Cumberland Sound, Baffin Island, Nunavut, Canada

Wetland Environments Cover 14 to 18% of Canada Mainly just to the south of treeline in discontinuous and sporadic permafrost Pockets further north Major carbon sink Potential future source of greenhouse gases (methane) Hydrophyllic vegetation present due to water table at or above mineral soil

Example of Plants Willow-herb Sedge Cotton grass has seeds that are dispersed across the tundra by the wind.

Source: Natural Resources Canada http://atlas.gc.ca/english/facts/wetlands/wetlands_ewetdist2_e.html

Online Video Resource Address Ecogeeks

Animals of the Tundra – Color Adaptations These animals turn white in order to camouflage themselves from predator or prey Lemming Arctic Hare Arctic Fox

Animals of the Tundra – Cold Adaptations Arctic ground squirrels hibernate Polar bears shelter in dens in winter and to have cubs

Animals of the Tundra Caribou migrate south during winter in search of food Muskox dig through snow in winter for food, if snow is frozen solid, they could die

Birds of the Tundra Snow geese migrating north in summer Tundra birds help to distribute seeds. When they eat bright colored berries, they fly to other areas and leave the seeds to grow.

Food Sources The Arctic Fox eats birds and rodents.                                 The Arctic Fox eats birds and rodents. The Musk ox eat lichen, moss, grass, and leaves. Food Sources Lemming eats grass & other vegetation. The Polar bear eats large & small mammals, birds, fish, berries, and leaves. Caribou eat lichen.

Online Video Resource Address

Classroom Resource World Wildlife Fund – Polar Bear Status

Arctic Warming at the Front Line of Global Change Hansen, Scientific American, March 2004

Dramatic changes in Artic Sea Ice 1979-2003: Progressive Loss of Arctic Ice Imagine an ice-free Arctic In September 2003, scientists from the United States and Canada announced that the largest ice shelf in the Arctic had broken up. The Ward Hunt ice shelf to the north of Canada’s Ellesmere Island split into two main parts, with other large blocks of ice also pulling away from the main sections. Evidence continues to emerge that average temperatures in the Arctic are rising even more rapidly than the global average. Satellite data indicate that the rate of surface temperature increase over the last 20 years was eight times the global average over the last 100 years. Studies report that the extent of Arctic sea ice has shrunk by 7.4 per cent over the past 25 years, with record-low coverage in September 2002. An analysis of 30 years of satellite data suggests that the loss of Arctic sea ice is also accelerating. There are projections that much of the sea ice, until now thought to be permanent, will melt during the summer by the end of this century if the current trend in global warming continues. This will have major direct impacts on indigenous people and Arctic wildlife such as polar bears and seals, and will also open the region to increased development pressure as access by sea to valuable natural resources becomes easier. The global impacts may also be significant as absorption of solar radiation increases, and could lead to changes in the world ocean circulation.

Source: Corell, R. W., 2004: Impacts of a warming Arctic. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment (www.acia.uaf.edu) Cambridge University Press (www.cambridge.org).

Classroom Resource NOAA Prediction of Arctic Sea Ice

The increase in growing season length over the last 50 years averaged for eight stations in Alaska having the longest and most consistent temperature records. Gradual Loss of Tundra (purple) as growing season lengthens The increase in growing season length over the last 50 years averaged for eight stations in Alaska having the longest and most consistent temperature records.

Classroom Resource Some models show loss of Tundra (purple) from Lawrence Livermore Laboratory

Imagery seen in this presentation is courtesy of Ron Dorn and other ASU colleagues, students and colleagues in other academic departments such as Profs. Oberlander at U.C. Berkeley, individual illustrations in scholarly journals such as Science and Nature, scholarly societies such as the Association of American Geographers, city, state governments, other countries government websites such as Canada and U.S. government agencies such as Dr. Robert Bailey and the U.S. Forest Service, NASA, USGS, NRCS, Library of Congress, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service USAID and NOAA.