Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource Chapter 9 Attention as a Limited Capacity Resource Concept: Preparation for and performance of motor skills are influenced by our limited capacity to select and attend to information

Defining the Term “Attention” and Multiple Task Performance Attention refers to characteristics associated with Consciousness Awareness Cognitive effort As they relate to the performance of skills, with particular reference to the limitations associated with those characteristics on the Simultaneous performance of multiple skills Detection of relevant information in the performance environment

Attention and Multiple Task Performance When we simultaneously perform multiple tasks (e.g. driving a car, listening to a CD, and talking with a passenger) we sometimes experience no difficulties in performing all the tasks, but we sometimes cannot do all the tasks as we would like WHY? Answer relates to “attention” as a performance limiting factor

Attention Theories Filter Theories (a.k.a. bottleneck theories) Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of limitation due to serial processing of multiple stimuli [see Fig. 9-1] Alternative Theories (Resource capacity theories) Difficulty doing multiple tasks simultaneously because of limitation due to availability of resources needed to carry out tasks i.e. resource capacity limits Simultaneous performance of multiple tasks can occur as long as the resource capacity limits not exceeded

Attention Theories, cont’d Central Resource Capacity Theories Propose one central (i.e., CNS) source of attention resources for which all activities requiring attention compete Task A Driving car Task B Talking with passenger Flexible attention capacity Kahneman’s Attention Theory: An Example of a Central Resource Capacity Theory Equates attention with “cognitive effort” Proposed flexible attention capacity limits See Figure 9.3

Kahneman’s Attention Theory, cont’d Miscellaneous determinants Arousal level: The factor that influences the amount of attention capacity for a specific performance situation Amount of attention resources available (i.e. capacity) varies in relation to a person’s arousal level Maximum amount available only when arousal level is optimal for the situation Relate to inverted-U function of arousal – performance relationship Evaluation of attention requirements of multiple tasks to be performed Critical factor for determining whether sufficient attention resources available – given capacity limits set by arousal level Misc. manifestations of arousal Arousal Available capacity Enduring dispositions Allocation policy Momentary intentions Evaluation of demands on capacity Possible activities Responses

Kahneman’s Attention Theory, cont’d Miscellaneous determinants 3 “rules” people use to allocate available attention resources when performing multiple tasks Ensure completion of at least one task Enduring dispositions: Involuntary attention allocation, e.g., Novel for the situation Meaningfulness of the event (e.g., “cocktail party phenomenon”) Momentary intentions Allocate attention according to instructions Misc. manifestations of arousal Arousal Available capacity Enduring dispositions Allocation policy Momentary intentions Evaluation of demands on capacity Possible activities Responses

Multiple Resource Theories Alternative to theories proposing one central resource Propose that we have several sources for attention Each source has a limited capacity of resources The multiple sources based on specific information processing component Sensory input (e.g. visual, proprioceptive) Response output (e.g. verbal, motor) Type of memory code (e.g. spatial, verbal) Performance of simultaneous multiple tasks depends on competition for attention resources within and between the multiple sources

Procedures for Assessing Attention Demands Dual-task procedure determine the attention demands and characteristics of the simultaneous performance of two different tasks Primary task is the task of interest Secondary task performance is the basis to make inferences about the attention demands of the primary task

Focusing Attention Attentional focus: Attention switching The marshalling of attention resources to direct them to specific characteristics of our performance or performance environment Width of focus Focus can be broad or narrow Direction of focus Focus can be external or internal Attention switching The changing of attention focus characteristics in a situation that allows successful performance

Focusing Attention on Movements vs. Movement Effects Concerns direction of attentional focus – Does internal or external direction matter? Action effect hypothesis (Prinz, 1997) Proposed benefit of external focus during performance Focus attention on “intended outcome” of movements rather than on movements themselves

Attention and Automaticity Automaticity = Performance of a skill (or parts of a skill) without requiring attention resources Automaticity of task performance related to amount of practice Question that remains for researchers to answer: How automated does the performance of complex skills become?

Visual Selective Attention The study of attention as it relates to the use of vision in the selection of environmental information in the preparation and/or performance of an action Visual search is the process of directing visual attention to locate relevant information (i.e., cues) in the environment

Visual Selective Attention, cont’d Eye-movement recordings are commonly used to investigate visual selective attention Important question is: What is the relationship between eye movements and visual selective attention; does what a person is “looking at” (point of gaze) indicate where visual selective attention is directed? It is possible to direct attention to an environmental feature without directly looking at it Remember, eye-movement recordings identify focal vision not peripheral vision It is not possible to make an eye movement without also making a shift in attention

How We Select Visual Cues? Visual search and intended actions An active search for “regulatory” conditions based on action goal e.g. Research by Bekkering & Neggers (2002) showed different visual search patterns for the action goals pointing to an object and grasping the object Feature integration theory: Initially search according to specific features (e.g., color, shape) Direct “attentional spotlight” on environment (wide or narrow focus) features of interest “pop out”

Visual Search and Action Preparation Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 aspects of action preparation Action selection Constraining of the selected action Timing of action initiation Note how these three preparation processes influenced by visual search in Open motor skills Closed motor skills See examples in the textbook

Visual Search and Action Preparation Visual search picks up cues that influence 3 aspects of action preparation Action selection Constraining of the selected action Timing of action initiation Note how these three preparation processes influenced by visual search in Open motor skills Closed motor skills See examples in the textbook

Training Visual Search Strategies Search strategies can be learned, however, they must be specific to an activity. There is little evidence of benefit derived from generalized visual training programs It ignores the general finding that experts recognize specific patterns more readily than do novices Visual search success is experience based Often results from implicit learning of relevant visual cues