Biochemistry= The Chemistry of Life All life functions/ process are based on the chemical reactions in our bodies! An Element: These are single substances which cannot be broken down any more. there are 110 different elements that are known to man.

The four most common elements in living things are: 1) Carbon 2) Hydrogen 3) Oxygen 4) Nitrogen Black = Carbon; Yellow = Hydrogen; Red = Oxygen These four elements make up 96% of the human body

Each element is identified by one or two letter abbreviation called a symbol Carbon- C

Trace Elements What are they? An element needed in small quantities for proper growth and development Examples: copper, zinc, iron How do plants and animals obtain them? Found in proteins, minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates

Atoms: The building blocks of elements An atom is the basic unit of matter. The center of the atom is called the: nucleus 1) Protons - Positively charged particles 2) Neutrons - Neutral (uncharged) particles Electrons

Each element has distinct characteristics that result from the number of electrons in the nuclei of atoms 3) Electrons – Negatively charged particles

Isotopes Atoms of the same element always have the same number of protons but may contain different numbers of Neutrons

Biochemistry Compounds – These are two or more elements combined. These elements are bonded together. Ex). Molecular model of water. It is a compound because there are three elements bonded together.

Biochemistry Covalent Bonding - The elements share atoms to form a molecule.

Biochemistry Ionic Bonding - The atoms transfer the electrons. The atoms acquire a charge and then become ions.

Ions and ionic bonding What is meant by the term ion? ION is an atom or molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge

Mixtures and Solutions Mixture- the mixing of compounds and elements without changing their properties or makeup. Solution- a uniform mixture of two or more substances (these substances dissolve the other substance)

Acids and Bases pH scale- a scale which describes how acidic or basic a solution is Acid- a compound that donates H+ ions to a solution (0-6 on the pH scale) Base- a compound that removes H+ ions from a solution (8-14 on the pH scale)

Formula - A formula shows the ratio of elements, or the structure of the compounds. There are two types of formulas: 1) Empirical Formula - This shows the symbols of the elements, followed by a numerical subscript which identifies the ratio of the atoms. Ex: H2O means there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom

H2O2 = two hydrogen and two oxygen How many of each is in a molecule of sugar? C6H12O6 6 Carbon 12 Hydrogen 6 Oxygen

Biochemistry Structural Formula - This formula shows how the atoms are arranged (its structure!!). For example, sugar C6H12O6 looks like this.

Biochemistry Glucose and fructose have the same molecular formula C6 H12O6, but they have different structural formulas

Inorganic Compounds – Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen. They may contain one or the other, but they don't contain both. Examples of inorganic compounds: Water - H2O Acids - HCl Salts - NaCl CO2 Bases - NaOH *** Water is essential for life functions of cells. It is a solvent for other substances to dissolve in. Most chemical reactions occur only in water solutions

Biochemistry Organic compounds - These are formed in nature by activities of living organisms. ***They always contain both carbon and hydrogen. Carbon is special because it can form 4 covalent bonds while most others can only form 2 bonds. Therefore, it can form long chains and rings. Count the number of bonds to carbon

Biochemistry Enzymes - ALL enzymes are proteins!!! Enzymes control chemical reactions. They help the reactions to occur, but they are not changed or used up in the reaction!!! Therefore, they can be used over and over again (although, eventually, they do break down (disintegrate) over time). ***Enzymes are classified as catalysts. Catalysts are substances that increase the rate of a reaction, but are not changed. Name of enzymes: Enzymes end in the letters "ASE" (KNOW THIS!!!) They are usually named after the substrate that it acts upon

Biochemistry Structure of Enzymes: 1) They are proteins - so they are made up of? ____ Amino acids!! 2) They may have a non-protein coat called a co-enzyme The coenzyme helps the enzyme function properly and without it, some enzymes may not be able to function at all. Vitamins act as coenzymes. 3) Enzymes have an active site. This is where enzyme action occurs. The enzymes are usually bigger than the molecules that they act upon.

Biochemistry 4) Enzyme-substrate complex - The enzyme forms a temporary association with the substances whose reaction it controls. Active Site The point where contact is made is called the active site The substance acted upon is called the substrate After the reaction is over, the enzyme separates from the substrate and may be used elsewhere.

Biochemistry Which is the enzyme and which is the substrate? How do you know? What kind of reaction is this? The enzyme does not get changed in this reaction - therefore it is the green one. Another clue is that it is bigger than the substrate. This is a hydrolysis reaction because the substrate is being broken down

Biochemistry "Lock and Key" Model - A lock has a specific shape. Only one specific key will open that lock. This model is used to describe how enzymes work - their shape has to fit the substrate, otherwise, the enzyme will not work on the substrate. Notice how they fit together, like a lock and a key

Biochemistry Hydrolysis with enzyme action

Biochemistry Dehydration synthesis of product with use of an enzyme

Biochemistry Dehydration synthesis of a product with enzyme

Biochemistry Chemical Nature of Enzymes 1) Rate of enzyme action The rate varies with conditions in the cellular environment: There are 3 factors that affect the rate of enzyme actions a) pH level (acidic or basic) b) Temperature c) How much (concentration) of enzyme OR substrate is available.

a) pH. pH is measured on a scale of 0-14. The low Biochemistry a) pH. pH is measured on a scale of 0-14. The low end is acidic. The high end is basic. 7 is neutral (middle) 0-1 2 3 4 5 6 (7) 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 moder- ately acidic strongly acidic slightly basic moderately basic strongly basic slightly acidic neutral How to remember if a pH is acidic or basic: go from left to right when you read - low numbers on left, high numbers on right Alphabet: "A" is left of "B" - low numbers are acidic, high numbers are basic

Biology

Biochemistry Each enzyme acts most effectively within a certain pH range Ex: Pepsin (found in your stomach) works best in acidic conditions. Your stomach is very acidic. Would pepsin work in your mouth? B) Temperature The rate of the reaction is generally slow at low temperatures. As the temperature increases, so does the rate of the reaction, but only up to a point!! If the temperature gets too high, then the shape of the enzyme changes and no longer functions.

Biochemistry When an enzyme's shape is changed due to high temperatures, it is said to be denatured. They can't fit into the substrate any more.

Biochemistry **** Human enzymes become denatured at temperatures near 400 C which is a few degrees above body temperature Human body temperature is 370 C C) Relative amount (aka: concentration) of enzyme or substrate The rate of the enzyme activity will increase as the amount of substrate increases, but only up to a point. The rate levels off as more substrate is added (because you only have so much enzyme available to work on the substrate)

Biochemistry

There are 4 major kinds of organic compounds found in living things: Biochemistry There are 4 major kinds of organic compounds found in living things: 1) Carbohydrates 2) Proteins 3) Lipids (Fats) 4) Nucleic Acids

1) Carbohydrates - These are compounds that are made up of C, H & O. The elements are usually in a ratio of 2(H) : 1(O) Ex: C6H12O6 12:6 = 2:1 There are 3 types of carbohydrates: A) Monosaccharides Mono = 1 B) Disaccharides Di = 2 C) Polysaccharides Poly = 3 or more A) Monosaccharides These are simple sugars. They usually end in the letters "ose" - glucose, fructose, galactose etc. These have the molecular formula of C6H12O6

Biochemistry B) Disaccharides - These are carbohydrates made up of 2 simple sugars put together. Ex: Maltose, Sucrose, Lactose Sucrose is two glucose molecules put together

Biochemistry C)Polysaccharaides: These are carbohydrates made up of many sugar units synthesized into long chains called polymers. Examples: starches, cellulose etc.

Dehydration Synthesis 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen are missing - in order to put these two molecules together, a water molecule must be taken out. This process is called dehydration synthesis (dehydration = lose water) (synthesis = put together)

Biochemistry Hydrolysis - This is the opposite process of dehydration synthesis. It is when you add water to a compound and the compounds separate (break down) Hydro = water Lysis = break up

Biochemistry 2) Proteins - Proteins contain C, H, O, and N. They may also contain sulfur. They are used to make cell structures such as the membrane as well as other things *** All enzymes are proteins!! *** Many hormones are proteins

Biochemistry Amino Acids- building blocks The units which make up proteins are called You will learn this also as "the building blocks of proteins" An amino acid has two distinct parts: 1) an amino group 2) a carboxyl group O H N - C OH Amino Group Carboxyl Group COOH

Biochemistry Every amino acid has both of these groups (amino group and carboxyl group). However, each amino acid is different by what is between the two groups. The different group in the middle vary, and are represented by the letter "R"

A protein consists of many of these amino acid units linked together. They are linked together (synthesized) by the process of???????? __________________ Dehydration Synthesis

Dehydration Synthesis of a protein Dipeptide (AKA: Protein)

Polypeptide (AKA: Protein)

A protein with many amino acids linked together AKA: Polypeptide

3) Lipids - These are fats and oils (ask me about a fat lip) Lipids are made of C, H< O, but are in a different ratio than carbohydrates. The H:O ratio is greater than 2:1 lipids are used for: 1) Stored Energy 2) Cell Structures (cell membranes) 3) Cushioning Organs

Biochemistry A lipid consists of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol 1 glycerol 3 fatty acids

Biochemistry A lipid is made by the process of dehydration synthesis of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule. Fluid- Mosaic Model of Cell Membrane

4) Nucleic Acids- dna AND RNA 1. DNA- Deoxyribonucleic acid Building blocks are nucleotides Nucleotides consist of a phosphate group, sugar and a nitrogenous base DNA holds all of our genetic information 2. RNA- is the single stranded messenger molecule made by DNA to leave the nucleus to make an amino acid

Indicators! To test for monosaccarides, simple sugars! Example: glucose Benedicts solution is blue add heat, will turn orange for a + result To test for polysaccarides, starches Example: potatoes Use Iodine; a amber/ brown in color Will turn dark blue/ black in presence of starch, a + result!

To test for proteins, amino acids -use biuret indicator; blue in color Example: peanuts, chicken -use biuret indicator; blue in color -Will turn purple/ lavender for + To test for lipids, oils, waxes Example: butter, vegetable oil Use brown paper bag/ paper towel If translucent, a positive test for lipids