Review for Quiz 2 Chapter 4-6 (Modules 12-20), Pages Essentials of Understanding Psychology- Sixth Edition PSY110 Psychology © Richard Goldman October 26, 2006

Consciousness Awareness of sensations, thoughts, and feelings at the moment Altered states of consciousness:  Sleeping and Dreaming  Drug use  Hypnosis

Stages of Sleep 5 Distinct stages:  Stage 1 – Brief transition period – Rapid low amplitude brain waves  Stage 2 – Longest period of sleep – Slower more regular brain waves – brief periods of sleep spindles  Stage 3 – Even slower and larger brain waves  Stage 4 – Slowest and largest brain waves – Only achieved during the first early part of the night  REM (Rapid Eye Movement) – Dreaming occurs, increase in hart rate & blood pressure – accounts for ~20% of sleep time.  Complete cycle ~ 90 minutes

How much sleep is necessary Changes with age The older you get the less you sleep We currently sleep about 3 hrs less/night than 100 yrs ago Sleep deprivation causes a reduction in cognitive ability & recent memory Sleep deprivation does not have a lasting effect

Teen Sleep Teens tend to get sleepier later (11:00pm) and wake later

Function & Meaning of Dreams Nightmares – common – people often have about 24 per year Most dreams are about what you do Meaning of Dream  Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory – Freud  Latent Content of dreams - Actual Meaning  Manifest Content of dreams – overt dream  Interpretations tend to be sexually oriented Research shows that emotion & motivation parts of the brain are active during REM sleep. Dream-for-Survival Theory – Dreaming reprocess recent events, sifts and strengthens memory Activation-Synthesis Theory – Dreaming is triggered by random brain activity then the brain tries to make sense of it

Circadian Rhythm 1-day wake/sleep cycle  Controlled by SCN (Suprachiasmatic Nucleus) in brain  Affected by seasons (amount of light and dark) Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals.sleeping There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.brain wavehormone The term "circadian", coined by Franz Halberg, comes from the Latin circa, "around", and dies, "day", meaning literally "about a day.“ Franz HalbergLatin The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called chronobiology.chronobiology

Sleep Disturbances Insomnia - Can’t get to sleep  ¼ of the population have it  Some people do not really know how much they sleep (they often sleep much more than they believe) Sleep Apnea – Heavy snoring – Stop breathing  SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) may be related  CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) devices can help  Surgery

Sleep Disturbances (Continued) SAD – Seasonal Affective Disorder – Depression related to the lack of sunshine  Short winter days  Exposure to full spectrum light can help Jet Lag  Disparity between personal internal clock and actual local time  Shift Changes  People are usually able adjust to different wake/sleep cycles over time.  Continual changes create continual problems.

Daydreams Dreaming (fantasying) without sleeping  Accounts for about 10% of wake time  Reduces awareness of surroundings by varying degrees

Ways To Sleep Better Exercise Establish a fixed sleep pattern Use bed for sleep only Avoid caffeine after noon Drink warm milk at bedtime (contains tryptophan) Avoid sleeping pills Visit a sleep disorder clinic

To establish a sleep pattern: Go to bed at an established time If you can’t fall asleep get up do something until you are tired Get up an established time Do not take naps during the day

Hypnosis Trancelike stage of increased susceptibility to suggestion Subject must be willing Will not do anything against your will 5-20% can not (or are not willing) to be hypnotized

Some Use of Hypnosis Psychological Treatment Pain Management Law Enforcement Athletic Improvement (concentration) Smoking/Drugs - addiction/compulsive behavior management Enertainment

Meditation A learned technique of focusing so sharply on something that you become unaware of outside stimulation.

Psychoactive Drugs Altered State of Consciousness Influences a persons  Emotions  Perceptions  Behavior

Addictive Drugs Biological or Psychological Dependency Examples:  Cocaine  Alcohol  Caffeine  Nicotine  Heroine

Why do People Take Drugs? Pain relief or other medical reason  Prescription  Self medicated Emulating Role Model Peer Pressure Curiosity Thrill Seeking Escape Pleasure Religious Practice

Stimulants Street NameEffectsWithdrawal SymptomsAdverse/Overdose Reactions Cocaine Amphetamines Benzedrine Dexedrine Coke Snow Blow Lady SnowSpeed Increased confidence, mood elevation, sense of energy and alertness, decreased appetite, anxiety irritability, insomnia, transient drowsiness, delayed orgasm Apathy. general fatigue. prolonged sleep, depression, disorientation, suicidal thoughts, agitated motor activity, irritability bizarre dreams Elevated blood pressure, increase in body temperature, face picking, suspiciousness, bizarre and repetitious behavior vivid hallucinations, convulsions, possible death Depressants Alcohol Barbiturates Nembutal Seconal Phenobarbital Booze Yellow jackets Yellows Reds Anxiety reduction, impulsiveness. dramatic mood swings, bizarre thoughts, suicidal behavior slurred speech, disorientation, slowed mental and physical functioning. limited attention span Weakness, restlessness, nausea and vomiting, headaches, nightmares, irritability, depression, acute anxiety hallucinations, seizures, possible death Confusion, decreased response to pain. shallow respiration. dilated pupils, weak and rapid pulse, coma, possible death RohypnolRoofies Rope “Date-rape drug” Muscle relaxation, amnesia, sleepSeizuresSeizures, coma, incapacitation, inability to resist sexual assault Narcotics Heroin Morphine H, hombre, junk, smack, dope, crap, horse, Drugstore dope, cube, first line, mud Anxiety and pain reduction, apathy, difficulty in concentration, slowed speech. decreased physical activity drooling, itching, euphoria, nausea Anxiety, vomiting, sneezing, diarrhea, lower back pain, watery eyes. runny nose, yawning, irritability, tremors, panic, chills and sweating. cramps Depressed levels of consciousness, low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, shallow breathing, convulsions, coma, possible death Hallucinogens Cannabis (THC) delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol Marijuana Hashish Hash oil Bhang. kif, ganja, dope, grass, pot, hemp, joint, weed, bone, Mary Jane reefer Euphoria, relaxed inhibitions, increased appetite, disoriented behavior Hyperactivity, insomnia, decreased, appetite. anxiety Severe reactions rare but include panic, paranoia, fatigue, bizarre and dangerous behavior, decreased testosterone over long term; immune-system effects MDMA 3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine EcstasyHeightened sense of oneself and insight, feelings of peace, empathy, energy Depression, anxiety sleeplessnessIncrease in body temperature, memory difficulties LSD lysergic acid diethylamide Acid, quasey, microdot, white lightning Heightened aesthetic responses; vision and depth distortion; heightened sensitivity to faces and gestures: magnified feelings; paranoia; panic: euphoria Not reportedNausea and chills; increased pulse, temperature, and blood pressure; slow, deep breathing; loss of appetite; insomnia; bizarre, dangerous behavior

Classical Conditioning Learned Response - learned by paring a neutral stimuli with a natural stimuli Discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying digestion Ivan Pavlov ( )

Classical Condition - Pavlov’s Experiment Neutral Stimulus:  Bell Rings (neutral stimulus)  Gets Dog’s Attention (unrelated to meat) Unconditioned Stimulus  Dog Shown Meat (UCS Unconditioned Stimulus)  Dog Salaivates (UCR Unconditioned Response) During Conditioning Neutral Stimulus:  Bell Rings Unconditioned Stimulus  Shown Meat Unconditioned Response  Dog Salivates After Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus:  Bell Rings (Unconditional Stimulus removed)  (no meat shown) Conditioned Response  Dog Salivates Before Conditioning

Extinction Extinction of Conditioned Response  Un-learning a conditioned response  The strength of a conditioned response diminishes if not reinforced. Spontaneous Recovery  Immediate reemergence of CR  Single paring of CS with CR

Stimulus Generalization Responding similar stimuli as though it were the Conditioned Stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination Ability to differentiate between stimuli

Operant Conditioning Learned Response - learned by associating rewards or punishments with a activity

Thorndike's Law of Effect (Connectionism) Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated. Edward Lee Thorndike 8/31/ 1874 – 8/9/1949)

Reinforcers Reinforcer – Stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior Primary Reinforcer – Satisfies biological need (food, etc.) Secondary Reinforcer – Associated with primary reinforcer (money, etc.) Negative Reinforcer – Removal of a positive reinforcer, primary or secondary, (time-out, grounding, etc.)

Punishment Stimulus the decrease the likelihood of a behavior – (spanking, jail, fines, etc.) Produces:  Avoidance activity  Resentment To be effective:  Must be immediate  Must be severe enough to discourage behavior Least effective method of learning

Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio – Rewards given at a fixed rate per performance  Hourly employee’s paycheck  Requires strict adherence to reward schedule Variable-ratio – Rewards given at an unknown rate  Slot machine  Very effective Fixed-interval – Rewards given at fixed time  Salaried employee’s paycheck  Least effective Variable-interval – Reward given at a unknown time intervals  Pop quizzes  More effective

Shaping Behavior Teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior. (Successive approximations)

Behavior Modification Formal procedure to increase or decrease a behavior: 1. Identify target behavior 2. Design data recording system 3. Establish baseline 4. Start program (Reinforcing Behavior) 5. Record Data 6. Evaluate Data Informal behavior modification is normal part of how we normally interact with others.

Latent Learning Learning without apparent incentives Not demonstrated until needed  A passenger in a car may learning how find a particular store

Observational Learning Learning by observing a model Imitation Much of childhood learning

Learning Styles Relational – learning parts are related to the whole (women) Analytical – analysis of the principals involved (men)

Memory Process of encoding, storing, and retrieval of information:  Encoding – Receiving, processing, and storing information received from the senses  Storage – Maintenance of information saved in memory  Retrieval – Locating information and bringing it to awareness

Types of Memory Sensory Learning – < 1 second – Raw Information  Sight (Iconic)  Hearing (Echoic)  Touch  Taste  Smell  Motion Short Term Memory – seconds Long Term Memory – Permanent

Short-term Memory Holds encoded (processed/meaningful) information. Can hold a maximum of seven (+/- 2) chunks of information.  7 numbers  7 letters  7 words  (etc.) Limited to seconds

Rehearsal Transferring Short-term to Long-term Memory Just repeating the information over and over  Keeps the information active in short-term memory  Often lost when the repeating stops Elaborative Rehearsal  Using logic, mnemonics, or organizing the information leads to long-term memory storage

Traditional Memory Model (Sequential) Sensory Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Short-term Memory Conscious Awareness Retrieval Simple Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal

Working Memory Model Sensory Memory Encoding Long-term Memory Retrieval Working Memory Central Executive Visual Store Verbal Store Episodic Buffer

Long-term Memory Model Long-term Memory Declarative MemoryProcedural Memory (Skills & Habits) Semantic Memory (Facts) Episodic Memory (Personal knowledge)

Associative Memory Model Interconnected mental representations of information Priming – Word or concept triggers recall of related information

Recalling Difficult because of the vast amount of information stored in our brains Retrieval Cues - Words or images that guide us through long term memory Recall - retrieving information (fill in the blank) Recognition - select from items presented (multiple choice)

Levels of Processing The more material is analyzed, considered, or processed in any way – the better it will be remembered. Which generates better, long-lasting memory?  Rote memorization of a list of key terms  Discussing the key terms in a study group

Flashbulb Memories Vivid memories focused on a significant event in your life.

Constructive Processes in Memory Recollection is imperfect Our minds fill in the missing information Our personal biases and expectations affect how we fill in the missing information. Schemas:  Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is: Interpreted Stored Recalled

Memories in the Courtroom Eyewitnesses are prone to very high error because of fear, influences from personal schema, expectations (how questions are worded), etc. Children’s recollections are especially susceptible to the influence or perceived expectations.

Repressed Memories: Truth or Fiction? “Repressed Memories” are often (always?) “False Memories” (fabricated). Psychologists have been accused (and convicted) of inadvertently prompting and encouraging the creation of “Repressed Memories.” Repressed Memories - supported by Freud - no scientific support

Autobiographical Memory Recalling our own past is subject to the same constructive processes and biases as other types of recall. We tend to recall our past in ways that are consistent with our current beliefs and desires. Major events are remembered best – unpleasant events are remembered least. Accuracy of recall decreases with time.

Forgetting The inability to recall may be attributed to may factors:  Initial encoding  Memory decay  Interference  Cue-dependent loss  Drugs  Disease  Physical damage

Memory Persistence Memory decreases over time: Very rapid at first; Very slow later on Reviewing information right after learning greatly increases persistence. Relearning previously learned information is easier, quicker and more persistent. Hermann Ebinghaus

Memory Decay The loss of the physical memory trace. Though to be due to lack of use. Does not appear to be time dependent. (May just be a recall problem.)

Memory Interference The theory that new memory interferes with the recall of older memory.  Proactive Interference – Earlier learning interferes with new learning  Retroactive Interference – New learning interferes with older learning

Biological Foundation of Memory Memory Trace: The physical (neurological) record (map) of a memory. Consolidation:  Memory occurs with the increase of stable synapses between many neurons.  Controlled by the hippocampus Long-term Potentiation (LTP): The enhancement in efficiency of the synapse between neurons. Multiple processing systems in the brain are involved in learning and consolidation and LTP occurs over long periods of time throughout the brain.

Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer's Disease  1 in 5 in age group  50% of those 85 and over  (May be related to low production of beta amyloid) Amnesia  Retrograde amnesia – Unable to remember past (rare)  Anterograde amnesia – Unable to remember current things Korsakoff’s Disease  Afflicts long-term alcoholics

Normal vs. Alzheimer’s Disease Normal forgetfulness:  Forgetting parts of an experience  Forgetting where the car is parked  Forgetting events from the distant past  Forgetting a person's name, remembering it later Memory loss due to Alzheimer's disease:  Forgetting an entire experience  Forgetting how to drive a car  Forgetting recent events  Forgetting ever having known a particular person  Causes changes in both thinking (cognition) and behavior or personality.