+ History of First Nations: Newcomer Relations

+ First Encounters: Military and Commercial Alliances First Contact to 1763

+ Indigenous peoples occupied North America for thousands of years before Europeans arrived. VIDEO: portal.com/academy/lesson/native- american-history-origin-of-tribes- and-cultures.html

+ European Colonial Settlement & the Fur Trade 1500s: Europeans return Competing colonies: French & British dominant powers 1600s: settlement on large scale

+ Euro-First Nations Commercial Alliances

+ French & British fur traders follow routes inland. Network of forts and posts. Fur traded for European goods.

+ 16 th and 17 th centuries: profitable fur trade leads to violent clashes First Nations groups’ competition led to warfare

Haudenosaunee attain peace with French and secure British protection

+ Military Alliances Conflict between British & French transforms commercial partnerships with First Nations into military alliances.

+ The Seven Years' War (1756–1763)  Final French–British conflict in North America. British create Indian Department (1755) for alliance with First Nations. British victory = 150 year old alliances are realigned. British – First Nations treaties for peace.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 Success of colonies depended on stable peace with First Nations. Firm western boundary for colonies. “Indian Territories” = no settlement or trade without permission. Only Crown could purchase land. First public recognition of First Nations’ rights to lands and title.

+ The Royal Proclamation of 1763 VIDEO:

+ A Changing Relationship – From Allies to Wards

+ 1783: end of the American War of Independence Loyalists refugees to British North America First Nations military allies also refugees “Reserves” of land arranged

+ British still relied on First Nation warriors for the colony’s defence. War of 1812: First Nations fought with British and colonists. VIDEO: ps7no6Eo

+ New immigrants continue to arrive Immigration to Canada

+ Land surrenders had to increase to provide farm lands.

+ Changing Relationship After War of 1812 – First Nations no longer viewed as vital for defence. Land holds viewed as blocking growth. British began to see them as dependents, rather than allies.

+ 1830s: only pockets of First Nations’ lands in Upper Canada They lost access to hunting grounds.

+ Robinson-Huron & Robinson- Superior Treaties Minerals discovered. First Nations’ lands to the Crown for reserves, annuities and continued right to hunt and fish on Crown lands. Template for future agreements in the West.

+ The Hudson’s Bay Company

+ Trading since 1670 ( the Company of Adventures). Trade alliance with the Cree who acted as intermediaries b/n the Company and the Interior groups. Fall of New France – French traders went out to trade & collect furs themselves. HBC adopted rival’s tactics and abandoned the use of First Nation middlemen. 1821: the Company of Adventurers and the Northwest Company merged into the Hudson’s Bay Company

+ Effects of the fur trade on First Nations HBC’s demand for bison pelts & pemmican transformed the buffalo hunt from one of subsistence to commercial exploitation. Traders hired First Nations men as labourers and porters. First Nations became dependent on European goods. Radically transformed Indigenous economies.

+ Effects of the fur trade on First Nations Easy access to alcohol. Intermarriage = new and distinct Aboriginal group – the Metis Increased contact between First Nations, traders, and settlers.

+ Legislated Assimilation – Development of the Indian Act

+ “Civilizing the Indian” “The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians. Why not annihilation? Their glory has fled, their spirit broken, their manhood effaced; better that they die than live the miserable wretches that they are.” Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer, by Frank L. Baum

+ “Civilizing the Indian” Aboriginals no longer viewed as military partners. British saw themselves as superior Duty to bring Christianity and agriculture to First Nations. Indian Department policies intended to “civilize” through assimilation.

+ Indian Legislation 1839: Crown Lands Protection Act Government guardian of Indian Reserve lands. 1857: Gradual Civilization Act Offered 50 acres of land & money to literate and debt-free First Nation individuals if they abandoned their traditional lifestyle and became a “civilized” citizen. 1850: Limited trespassing & encroachment on reserve lands. Defined “Indian” Exempted First Nations from taxation. 1860: Indian Land Act Transferred authority for Indian affairs from the British crown to the colonies.

+ The Numbered Treaties : 11 land surrender treaties Reserve lands (agricultural), annuities, hunting & fishing rights, schools & teachers, farming, hunting, fishing equipment. Adapt to life without the buffalo hunt. First Nations’ Motivations: Time of great change in their communities. Disease epidemics and famine Buffalo herds nearing extinction HBC moved operations north.

+ The Indian Act Greater authority to Dept. of Indian Affairs Could now intervene in internal band issues Crown is a “guardian” to First Nations people Many amendments – became very restrictive (created new system of band governance, pushed for abandonment of traditional lifestyle, banned spiritual and religious ceremonies, forbid fundraising for land claims)

+ Indian Education and Reform School 1883: Residential schools primary vehicle for “civilization” and “assimilation” Same manner and subjects as Canadian children Children forced to abandon traditional languages, dress, religion and lifestyle. 132 schools run by Catholic, United, Anglican and Presbyterian churches with the federal government children from

+ New Perspectives – First Nations in Canadian Society

+ Many First Nations served in WWI, WWII, and Korean War Late 1940s: provincially based organizations – desire for equality while maintaining cultural heritage.

+ Rolling Back Paternalism : joint committee – reviewed policies and management of Indian affairs 1950: ban on traditional ceremonies and fund raising repealed; bands given more control ; national pension benefits and health and welfare benefits extended to First Nations Government still had extensive power over First Nations

+ The White Paper 1969 Proposed: “special status” of Aboriginals = a disadvantage. all Canadians held same rights Aboriginals should be fully integrated repeal of Indian Act, end of special status, end to treaties First Nations rejected the White Paper Indian Act paternalistic, but also protected special Aboriginal status Resulted in new Aboriginal nationalism