From: Carter R (1998) Mapping the Mind. Seven Dials, London.

EMOTIONS PRIMARY SECONDARY (reflexive) (cognitive) fear anger happiness sadness disgust surprise envy shame guilt et cetera, et cetera, et cetera

INDICES OF FEAR IN ANIMAL MODELS IN GENERALISED ANXIETY  heart rate  salivation stomach ulcers respiration change scanning & vigilance  startle urination defecation grooming freezing heart pounding dry mouth upset stomach  respiration scanning & vigilance jumpiness, easy startle frequent urination diarrhoea fidgeting apprehensive expectation

From: See: LeDoux JE (2002) Emotion, memory & the brain. In: “The Hidden Mind”, Scientific American.

“The subcortical visual pathway may transmit low-frequency images (left) that arouse the amygdala better than high- frequency ones (right)” From: Helmuth L (2003) Fear & trembling in the amygdala. Science 300,

From: Dolan RJ (2000) Emotional processing in the human brain revealed through functional neuroimaging. In: Gazzaniga MS (Ed) The New Cognitive Neurosciences, 2nd Edn, MIT Press. Pp Blood flow (  neuronal O 2 consumption) increases in the right amygdala as the facial expression becomes more fearful and decreases as the facial expression becomes happier.

Paquette V, et al. (2003) “Change the mind & you change the brain”: effects of cognitive- behavioral therapy on the neural correlates of spider phobia. NeuroImage 18,

DEFICITS OF FEAR CONTROL Anxiety (social, generalized, situational) Phobias (e.g. dogs, air travel) Post-traumatic stress disorder Panic disorder

Patients with lesions that include the amygdala show: Deficits in fear conditioning Deficits in the perception of fear in facial expressions & voices