Instructional Design MM Monday 6:00-8:40

Objectives 1. Learning perspectives Learning perspectives 2. ToolBook interactions ToolBook interactions

Cognitive Psychology Pedagogy Learning theory Communication theory What is instructional design? Consult with client Draw a plan/prototype Revise plan Consult with client An idea or need??? Build ELearning

Needs Assessment

Analysis of learning context involves two main steps: 1. justification of a need for instruction to help learners reach learning goals and 2. description of learning environment in which the instruction will be used.

Justification of a need Designers conduct needs assessment to find out: Whether instruction should be designed and developed. If there actually is a need for new instruction to be developed.

Justification of a need Substantiation of need for instruction Does an instructional need exist for training on changing a flat tire? If tires were made better, we wouldn’t need to change them???

Justification of a need Ways to Substantiate Need 1. List goals/needs. Ask yourself the question, "what should learners be able to do.“ (e.g., change tire without getting hurt). 2. Determine extent the goal/need you identified in step 1 is being met. 3. Determine the discrepancy between "what is" and "what should be“. If there is a discrepancy, then you have a need.

Justification of a need Ways to Substantiate Need 4. Prioritize discrepancies or needs. 5. Rate how important or critical needs are. Ask the following questions: What are the biggest gaps/needs? (people can’t get hurt) What goals and associated needs are most important? How many individuals are affected by the need? How much is it costing to not reduce or eliminate the discrepancy/need? What are consequences of not meeting the goal or eliminating the need? How probable is it that you can reduce/eliminate the discrepancy/need?

Justification of a need What should be: Produce 100 wooden chairs per-day What is: Producing 15 wooden chairs per-day Not prioritized 1.Hire more staff 2.Improve logistics 3.Improve inventory tracking 4.Better purchasing methods 5.More efficient carpentry methods 6.Refine molding practices 7.Update equipment 8.Refine wood selection practices 9.Improve product scheduling Prioritized 1.Update equipment 2.Hire more staff 3.More efficient carpentry methods (T) 4.Refine wood selection practices (T) 5.Refine molding practices (T) 6.Improve logistics 7.Improve product scheduling 8.Improve inventory tracking 9.Better purchasing methods Costing $4,500 per-day to not reduce discrepancy/need.

Justification of a need Ways to Substantiate Need 6. Determine which discrepancy/need requires instruction. 7. There are numerous reasons why learners may not be performing well and not all of those reasons required training or the development of an eLearning program.

Description of the Learning Environment If you have a learning need: Describe Learning Environment Think about the “system" in which the instruction will be used.

Description of the Learning Environment System composed of: learners, instructional materials, trainers, instructional equipment, facilities, and community, organization, company.

Description of the Learning Environment Must understand environment where e-Learning program is placed. Must understand learners, materials, trainers, instructional equipment and facilities, and the organization (school, company).

Description of the Learning Environment What are the characteristics of the trainers who will implement materials? What are their interests and preferences? How do they see their roles as trainers/learning support? How do they feel about having instruction delivered via media?

Description of the Learning Environment Are there existing curricula into which this piece of instruction must fit? If so, what is the philosophy, strategy or theory used in these materials?

Description of the Learning Environment What hardware is available? What about video/audio, computer workstations? If so, what kind, how many, and in what configuration and networks? What software and other materials are available?

Description of the Learning Environment What are the characteristics of facilities where instruction will be used? What are the characteristics of the organization or company? Are there issues with the larger community or organization?

Influences on ID Learning Theory

Influences on ID

Theories of instruction "...theories of instruction (TOI) attempt to relate specified events comprising instruction to learning processes and learning outcomes, drawing upon knowledge generated by learning research and theory". Gagne and Dick (1983, p. 264)

Theories of instruction TOI provide educators and instructional developers methods and principles to help them create the conditions that will promote learning.

Theories of instruction Example : Gagne's theory of instruction defines: taxonomy of learning outcomes (verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, attitudes, and motor skills); learning hierarchies, acquire elemental skills prior to learning more complex skills; events of instruction, a sequence of events that lessons should follow for optimized learning; and conditions of learning, unique conditions necessary for learner to acquire desired, skill, knowledge or attitude (Driscoll, 2000, p. 357).

Theories of instruction Instructional theory explain causal link between instructional procedures and improvements in learning. Instructional design identifies efficient and effective procedures for instruction BUT does not explain causal relationship between instructional procedures and learning.

Psychological Basis Three Perspectives Behaviorism Cognitivism Constructivism

Behaviorism In the mid 1950s, behaviorism was the prevailing orthodoxy in American psychological science.

Behaviorism Scientific psychology based solely on observable environmental stimuli and to the observable responses the stimuli evoked. Mysterious, unobservable mental processes not considered.

Behaviorism What is... Behaviorism Behavioral psychology, also known as Skinnerian or stimulus-response psychology, is based on the premise that learning results from the pairing of responses with stimuli. Behavioral psychology studies external, observable behaviors in trying to explain why behaviors occur. Much of what we do today in education is based on behaviorism.

Drill and Practice (Example 2)Example 2

Behaviorism By 1956 human complexity unexplained by behaviorism become evident (MIT symposium). Noam Chomsky, George Miller, Herbert Simon, and Allen Newell - science of mind was necessary. New research paradigm in psychology, Cognitive Science.

Cognitive Science Cognitive scientists study how our minds work-how we think, remember, and learn.

Information Processing - Cognitivism Cognition is categorized by transformation of information from stimuli in the environment to a response by the learner.

Information Processing - Cognitivism Cognitive Information Processing Model

Working memory How many can you remember?

Working memory

Information Processing - Cognitivism G D O

DOG

Information Processing - Cognitivism Dog LTM STM My dog’s name was Sparkie Sparkie loved trees. We try to relate new information to knowledge we already possess. The more we can relate new information to things we already know, the more memorable the information becomes and/or the easier it is to learn.

Metaphor - often make interfaces easier to learn.

Prior knowledge We are already familiar with a calculator in the real world.

Information Processing - Cognitivism LTM STM I was born in March on the 14 th and I graduated college in What do these number mean, what do these number mean? How can I remember? Encoding

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 1997) consisting of three main ideas: (a) dual coding, in which visual and verbal materials are processed in different processing systems (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1986), (b) limited capacity, in which the processing capacities of visual and verbal memory systems are severely limited (Baddeley, 1992; Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995), and (c) generative learning, in which meaningful learning occurs when learners mentally select relevant information and build coherent connections (Mayer, 1999; Wittrock, 1990).

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning Three main ideas (continued): 1. Two separate channels (auditory and visual) for processing information (referred to as Dual-Coding theory); 2. Each channel has a limited (finite) capacity; 3. Learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based upon prior knowledge.

Limited capacity People can hold a few images and a few sounds in working memory at one time (cognitive load theory). Span tests show the average memory span is small, from 5 to 7 “chunks” of information. We constantly make decisions about the allocation of our processing resources.

Learning is an active process We are not like tape recorders. We don’t passively collect information. We are constantly selecting, organizing and integrating information with past knowledge. The result of this processing is the creation of a mental model of the information presented.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning Design principles: Provide coherent verbal, pictorial information Guide learners to select relevant words and images, and Reduce load for a single processing channel.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning “…in short-term memory tasks, auditory presentation almost always resulted in higher recall than did visual presentation" (Penney, 1989).

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning Design principles: When possible, words should be presented as auditory narration rather than as visual on-screen text. Words should be presented auditorily rather than visually.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning “…people learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer, p. 47).

Dual-Coding Theory of Multimedia Learning Mayer and Gallini (1990) found across three studies that coordination of words and pictures improved problem-solving transfer.

Cognitive theory of multimedia learning Students who learned with concurrent narration and animations outperformed those who learned with concurrent on- screen text and animations.

Constructivism

Constructivism is concerned with the process of how we construct knowledge. How we construct knowledge depends upon what the learners already know, which depends on their experiences.

Constructivism If we construct our own reality through interpreting experiences in the world, then professors cannot map their interpretations completely onto learners, because they don't share a set of common experiences and interpretations. Rather, reality (or at least what we know and understand of reality) resides in the mind of each knower, who interprets the external world according to his or her own experiences, beliefs, and knowledge.

Constructivism Constructivist learning occurs when learners actively construct meaningful mental representations from presented information. (Richard E. Mayer)

Constructivism When I say tree, you think… Grass Dog Christmas Rain forest Each of us is likely to a unique meaning.

Constructivism Characteristics of constructivist learning: Learning is active. Multiple perspectives are valued and necessary. Learning is collaborative and cooperative rather than competitive. Control and responsibility for learning is in the hands of the learner. Learning should be student-centered, learners actively participate in determining what and how learning occurs and teacher adjusts role from instructor to learning guide, facilitator, and coach. Learning is authentic and real-world based. Learners should be provided complex, authentic and relevant tasks and environments. (Jonassen, Peck, & Wilson,1999; Driscoll, 2000)

Screen Sample

Software types Drill and practice Tutorials (Ex 1) (Ex 2)Ex 1Ex 2 Simulations Games Problem solving programs