How Social Group Membership Gets “Under the Skin”: Discrimination and Educational Inequities Jacquelynne Eccles LLAKES Conference London July 5, 2010

Goals of my talk Look at social group membership as a broader social context for development and identity formation – Discuss how membership in ascribed social groups such as gender, ethnicity, social class can influence Both one’s experiences (Outside In) and One’s Social and Personal Identities, which, in turn, can influence behavioral choices (Inside Out) Present some empirical findings from our longitudinal study of African-American youth living near Washington DC as one example of such processes.

Outside In Social Group Membership can affect the ways in which people respond to you Differential treatment and provision of experiences (Ruble & Martin) Experiences related to daily experiences of discrimination and racism (Essed; Feagin) More pervasive structural forms of racism and inequality (McLoyd; Ogbu; Omi & Winant; Schoon)

Inside Out Ethnicity Can Affect Self Processes Stereotypes about future discrimination can lead to oppositional identity formation (Fordham & Ogbu) Knowledge of stereotypes can lead to stereotype- threat effects (Steele & Aronson) Incorporating stereotypes into one’s personal identity can lead to stereotypic perceptions of one’s skills and opportunities and stereotypic goals and aspirations (Ashmore; Crocker; Deaux; Eccles; Ruble)

Inside Out Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Let me step back here and say a bit more about the distinction between personal and social identities.

What do I mean by the distinction between social (collective) and personal identities? Social identity refers to that part of an individual's self ‑ concept that derives from his/her knowledge of and attitudes toward membership in a social group coupled with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership. Social identities are that part of the collective self that defines the individual in terms of his/her shared similarities with members of certain social groups Social identities serve the function of relatedness and membership.

What do I mean by the distinction between social (collective) and personal identities? Social identities include those that are socially ascribed (race and gender) as well as those that emanate from group memberships of choice. Different social identities may vary in salience in time and as a function of various social situations.

What do I mean by the distinction between social (collective) and personal identities? Personal identity refers to that part of an individual’s self- concept that makes a person feel unique. It is most similar to the type of identity Erikson was interested it. I am most concerned with the content of both personal and social identities because these aspects of identities influence behavioral choices and engagement intensity.

How Might Social and Personal Identities Influence Behavioral Choices and Engagement Intensity? – Through Their Influence on Individuals’ Expectancies/ Ability Self-Concepts (the ME selves) Subjective Task Values linked to Goals, Aspirations, and Possible Selves

Personal Experiences Personal Experiences Subcultural Beliefs, Images, Stereotypes Subcultural Beliefs, Images, Stereotypes Societal Beliefs, Images, Ideology, Stereotypes Societal Beliefs, Images, Ideology, Stereotypes Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership Expectations Personal Efficacy Expectations Personal Efficacy Perceived Value of Specific Activities Perceived Value of Specific Activities Behavior Patterns & Choices Behavior Patterns & Choices

"...in discussing identity...we cannot separate personal growth and communal change, nor can we separate the identity crisis in individual life and contemporary crises in historical development because the two help to define each other and are truly relative to one another. In fact, the whole interplay between the psychological and the social, the developmental and the historical, for which identity formation is of prototypal significance, could be conceptualized as a kind of psychosocial relativity." (Erikson, Identity. Youth and Crisis, 1968; pg. 23)

"A child has many opportunities to identify himself, more or less experimentally, with real or fictitious people of either sex and with habits, traits, occupations, and ideas.... However, the historical era in which he lives offers only a limited number of socially meaningful models for workable combinations of identity fragments. Their usefulness depends on the way in which they simultaneously meet the requirements of the organism's maturational stage, the ego's style of synthesis, and the demands of the culture.“ (Erikson,1968, Identity, Youth and Crisis, pp 53 ‑ 54)

Inside Out Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Ethnicity salience can lead to social identity formation (Aboud; Cross; McGuire; Phinney; Omi & Winant) Social identities can influence goals and aspirations, as well as behavioral style and friendship networks, which, in turn can influence behavior (Eccles; Gurin; Fordham & Ogbu; Kao; Mickelson; O’Connor; Oyserman; Rotherman & Phinney; Spencer; Sellers; Taylor; Ruble) – Need to understand individual’s stereotypes of their own group – Need to understand the centrality of group membership to the individual’s core identities

Inside Out Ethnicity and Social Identity Formation Social identities can help adolescents make meaning of experiences of racism and discrimination (Cross; Deaux; Phelan; Sellers; Spencer) – Buffer or exacerbate the influences of stigmatizing social group related experiences – Oppositional Identity formation – Resistance at personal and/or social level

Personal Experiences Personal Experiences Subcultural Beliefs, Images, Stereotypes Subcultural Beliefs, Images, Stereotypes Societal Beliefs, Images, Ideology, Stereotypes Societal Beliefs, Images, Ideology, Stereotypes Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations Personal Identities Self-concepts Self-schema Future possible selves Values Goals, Aspirations Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership Social Identities Salience Content Perception of barriers and opportunities linked to category membership Expectations Personal Efficacy Expectations Personal Efficacy Perceived Value of Specific Activities Perceived Value of Specific Activities Behavior Patterns & Choices Behavior Patterns & Choices

Illustrate with one empirical example Experiences of Racism And How Such Experiences Can Help Us Understand Group Differences in School Achievement

Use This Approach to Understand Group Differences in Achievement or Life-Choices African-American youth continue to do less well academically in school than European- American youth – High school grades – High school completion rates – Standardized test scores – College attendance rates

WHY? Inequities in opportunities and barriers – – Institutional and structural racism Differential face-to-face treatment - Racism

Contributors to the Maryland Adolescent Development in Context Study (MADICS) Jacquelynne Eccles, PI Arnold Sameroff, PI W. Todd Bartko Elaine Belansky Diane Early Kari Fraser Leslie Gutman Yael Harlap Katie Jodl Ariel Kalil Linda Kuhn Alice Michael Melanie Overby Stephen Peck Katherine Rosenblum Robert Roeser Sherri Steele Erika Taylor Cynthia Winston Carol Wong

Funders MacArthur Research Network on Successful Pathways Through Adolescence: – Chair Richard Jessor NICHD W.T. Grant Spencer Foundation University of Colorado University of Michigan

Sample Respondent characteristics: – African-American – N=625 – Average age = 11 at Wave 1 – Seventh grade at W 1 – 53 % male – Data presented today were collected in Fall of 7 th grade and Summer following 8 th grade Family background: – Median Family Income (1993): $50-55,000 – Highest Education: 38% College Degree – Highest Occupation: 44% Skilled 30% Professional

Longitudinal Mixed Methods Longitudinal Mixed Methods Face-to-face, in home interviews with youth and their parents which included both close-ended and quite open-ended questions Self-administered questionnaires with youth and their parents Open-ended phone interviews with youth and their parents Repeated intensive interviews with a subset of the youth

Data Collection Fall of 7 th Grade Summer following 8 th Grade Fall and Winter of 11 th Grade Fall after 12 th Grade Three Years after High School

Two Types of Perceived Discrimination Future discrimination Day to Day experiences of discrimination

Day to Day Discrimination: Sample Items How often do you … because of your race: – Get into fights with kids – Not get picked for certain school activities How often does your teacher … because of your race: – Call on you – Grade you harder – Discourage you from taking certain classes – Think you are less smart.

Adolescents’ Race-Related Experiences in School Eighth Grade Call on You Grade You Harsher Think You Are Discourage Less Harder Discipline Less Smart From Taking Classes

Conclusion Daily experiences of perceived racial discrimination appear to undermine many aspects of the healthy development of African American JHS youth. In contrast, anticipated future racial discrimination has very little impact

Modeling Developmental Associations Next we used SEM to model these effects on school achievement in a more theoretically driven manner We included the perceived racial discrimination experienced by parents

Percent of Adolescents’ Parents Experiencing Racial Discrimination in Their Communities Black Black White White Males Females Males Females

Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling Youth Perception of Discrimination by Teachers Youth Perception of Discrimination by Peers Parent Perception of Discrimination at Work Parent Perception of Discrimination in Community Youth Value of School Academic Achievement Youth Self-Concept of Ability R 2 =.12 R 2 =.31 R 2 = * -.31*** -.25*** **. 11 * ***.11* -.11*.09**.22*** Relation of Different Types of Racial Discrimination to African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement

Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling Youth Perception of Discrimination by Teachers Youth Perception of Discrimination by Peers Parent Perception of Discrimination at Work Parent Perception of Discrimination in Community Youth Value of School Academic Achievement Youth Self-Concept of Ability R 2 =.12 R 2 =.31 R 2 = * -.31*** -.25*** **. 11 * ***.11* -.11*.09**.22*** Relation of Different Types of Racial Discrimination to African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement

Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling Youth Perception of Discrimination by Teachers Youth Perception of Discrimination by Peers Parent Perception of Discrimination at Work Parent Perception of Discrimination in Community Youth Value of School Academic Achievement Youth Self-Concept of Ability R 2 =.12 R 2 =.31 R 2 =.36.10* -.31*** -.25*** **.11* ***.11* -.11*.09**.22*** Relation of Different Types of Racial Discrimination to African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement

Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling Youth Perception of Discrimination by Teachers Youth Perception of Discrimination by Peers Parent Perception of Discrimination at Work Parent Perception of Discrimination in Community Youth Value of School Academic Achievement Youth Self-Concept of Ability R 2 =.12 R 2 =.31 R 2 =.36.10* -.31*** -.25*** **.11* ***.11* -.11*.09**.22*** Effects of Different Types of Racial Discrimination on African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement

Youth Perception of Glass Ceiling Youth Perception of Discrimination by Teachers Youth Perception of Discrimination by Peers Parent Perception of Discrimination at Work Parent Perception of Discrimination in Community Youth Value of School Academic Achievement Youth Self-Concept of Ability R 2 =.12 R 2 =.31 R 2 =.36.10* -.31*** -.25*** **.11* ***.11* -.11*.09**.22*** Effects of Different Types of Racial Discrimination on African American Adolescents’ Academic Motivation and Achievement

Thus, there is strong support for the undermining impact of daily experiences of discrimination in school on school achievement as well as on other indicators of healthy adolescent development.

Furthermore, these effects appear to influence academic achievement through their influence on the students’ Ability Self Concepts Subjective Task Values

We see the similar processes when we look at gender and its association with educational choices although these are linked less to experiences of discrimination and more to experiences related to gender-role socialization

Predicting Number of Honors Math Classes N = 223 (honors students) Gender Math Aptitude Self-Concept of Ability in Math (R² =.06) Interest in Math (R² =.02) Utility of Math (R² =.04) Number of Honors Math Courses (R² =.19)

Predicting # of Physics Classes

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