Philosophical Positions of the Body and the Development of Physical Education: Contributions of the Germans, Swedes, and Danes in Nineteenth-Century Europe Chapter 8 Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fifth Edition © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introduction Discuss parameters of idealism Show impact of idealism on body and physical education Historical role of education during 18th century, including rise of physical education

Idealism Traced back to work of Socrates and Plato Has “competed” with naturalism since antiquity Naturalism—all events share same character Can be explained as a process inherent in nature Idealism and its view of the body are very significant to physical education

Idealism Idealists focus on three specific topics: The existence of God The self Knowledge Three components of idealism make up the fabric of metaphysical inquiry God, self, and the question, “how do I come to know?” Components are not limited to idealism, but form the basis for all philosophy

Idealism Idealists believe that entire universe is that which can be conceived or imagined by the mind What the mind or spirit experiences and perceives as real is essential and authentic The world of material objects is secondary to the “reality” conceived by the mind The actual world is imperfect Our mind is able to conceive of a perfect world, which also must exist and is real

Idealism Use of logic is essential to make idealism work Example: Reality is mind All ideas are conceived by the mind Anything conceived by mind in all probability exists Therefore, any idea conceived by mind exists The mind is composed of a spiritual quality Ultimate reality is beyond sensory and material world Two different philosophical views in idealism: Metaphysical and epistemological

Metaphysical Idealism Analyzes universe as a psychic or mental reality All “things” that exist in the universe are linked by an ideal element (logically deduced) Plato, St. Augustine, and even Aristotle believed in metaphysical idealism Facts or evidence are obtained through deductive and subjective logic Skeptics of metaphysical idealism will argue against this subjective logic later

Epistemological Idealism Approaches the study and actual “identification” of reality with mentally knowable data which are perceptible truths Despite what might be “out there” beyond our mind, all we can know is what is in our minds

Idealism and the Self Refer back to Descartes to prove “self” Descartes argued that the ability to doubt is a direct route to discovering the self “I think, therefore I am” Descartes arrived at self through process of doubt Descartes’ “self” was mindful activity Confirming the logic of idealism that reality is mind

Idealism and Knowledge Understanding nature of knowledge will clarify reality Ideals must be derived from logical evidence Sensory experiences must be interpreted and validated as authentic or unreliable Truth is orderly and systematic Test for truth: its coherence with knowledge that has been previously established Individual attains truth by examining the wisdom of the past through his own mind

Idealism and Knowledge Everything that exists has a relationship to something else that exists Reality is a system of logic and order established by the universal mind

German Idealists Idealist believes that world and universe are primarily spiritual Part of the “perfect world” Humans are composed of more than the corporeal They have a soul that is a link to spiritual reality Ultimate reality to an idealist is spiritual

German Idealists George Berkeley World has meaning because our minds are able to discern it Experience allows us, through the mind, to extract meaning from our existence, Something must exist that actually provides the elements of quality and meaning This Something is the Universal Mind, or God German idealists did not always base their belief in ultimate ideals with a traditional belief in God

German Idealists Complex philosophy Immanuel Kant Complex philosophy Published first major book at age 57—Critique of Pure Reason Theory of knowledge: Conscious reason is the catalyst for all of our experience It is our conscious experience (mind) that provides unity and order

German Idealists: Kant The world is represented to us by our physical senses and sensory input Sensations are chaotic and, therefore, unrelated These sensations we perceive are caused by “something out there” Mind and conscious thought describes and orders sensations into perceptible components of space and time

German Idealists: Kant Driving question: Can metaphysics exist as a science? Seems we come to know science and metaphysics in similar ways We link and unify sensory input by categorizing them through mindful activity (consciousness) We catalog these as reliable or unreliable

German Idealists: Kant Knowledge and reason are interactive process Originate in mind and are directed towards the world Must “reason” through issues and questions “Thing in Itself”: defies our knowledge Can never be known (infinite) Humans are finite Not able to comprehend or understand the infinite

German Idealists: Kant Kant bases his belief in God on moral grounds, not supernatural existence Kant’s five beliefs Categorical imperative of Kant and physical education-sport Sportsmanship and moral conduct in sport Teach humanistic qualities espoused by Kant

Johan Fichte Concentrated on ethical writings that challenged humans Believed that the phenomenal world we live in was designed to nurture and develop the “will” and develop character Believed, unlike Kant, that the “thing in itself” was knowable Evil is necessary: Catalyst for awakening the human spirit and spurring it to achievement

Johan Fichte Human spirit would never achieve without the presence of evil Human spirit and physical education: “Health of the body is essential to vigor of the mind and spirit development of the ‘self’” Idealism—big association between mind, body, and spirit

Georg Hegel Consummate idealist Reason can fathom all aspects of human experience Epistemology = Thesis  antithesis  synthesis Profound influence on Karl Marx Places corporeal world as a limited or finite idea Ultimate realities are within the realm of man’s reason Body is inferior to mind and spirit Assigned greater value to the ability to “know things” than Kant and other Idealists

Georg Hegel Portrait of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education Idealism demands healthy and fit body for each person to reach full potential Mind would be at a disadvantage without a healthy and fit body To develop the self includes development of the body Idealism supports the inclusion of physical education

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education Idealism allows answer to “what is good” “What is good” in education involves training toward moral ideals, not necessarily subject content Physical education should include moral training as well as physical The “moral imperative” applies to all aspects of sport and physical education Moral imperative opposes Exploitation of athletes Low graduation rates

Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education Achieving a superior life is the objective Physical, intellectual, spiritual, and moral growth are desired Students are to be evaluated not just by objectives tests but also subjectively—in terms of their “behavior, citizenship, and sociomoral conduct”

The Educators Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827) Theory of education: intellectual, moral, and practical Practical education involved gymnastics and games as well as physical labor Gave an important impetus to physical education as a school subject Educational reforms would further physical education

Freidrich Froebel (1782-1852) Learned under a student of Pestalozzi’s Believed in play as fundamental to growth and development Theory of play supported physical education “Play is the highest form of child development” Observation, discovery, and creativity were necessary for developing skills

Friedrich Jahn German nationalist who sought freedom from Napoleonic rule Established secret society (German League) Devoted to “spiritual renovation of Germany” Called for nationwide physical education in all universities Gymnastics teacher Established turnen exercises and turnverein movement Physical exercises as training to liberate Germany

Friedrich Jahn Friedrich Ludwig Jahn Image source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division, Washington, D.C.

Jahn and Gymnastics Gymnastic events to spread nationalism Jahn and Turners served in the wars of liberation from 1813-1815 Became underground movement after Germany won independence from France Government suppressed movement Three of Jahn’s students left for America Provided basis for American physical education

Charles Follen Lawyer, political subversive in Germany Fled to the U.S. in 1824 Hired at Harvard to teach German Developed turnplatz at Harvard and at the Boston Gymnasium Francis Lieber (also Jahn follower) replaced him in 1827

Charles Beck Classics scholar and theologian, followed Jahn Sailed to U.S., taught at the Round Hill School Round Hill: founded by Germans First school to require mandatory physical education in the form of German gymnastics Beck is credited with being first physical education teacher in America

Charles Beck’s Work Vaulting the horse, from the work of F. L. Jahn Image source: Charles Beck, A Treatise on Gymnastiks, 1828

Franz Nachtegall Father of physical education in Denmark Read GutsMuths and began to tutor students Promoted gymnastics in all Danish schools Achieved some success training teachers Program was largely taken over by military teachers and military gymnastics

Per Henrik Ling Originator of “Swedish” gymnastics Fundamental principles Harmonious development of the body Biological, physiological exercises Exercises were developmental, corrective, and aesthetic Progressive difficulty and rigor

Ling’s Gymnastics Grounded exercise in medical and scientific knowledge of the day Never caught on like Jahn’s system Some success in Northeast United States