Higher Apprenticeship as a measure to promote School-to Work Transition and Lifelong Learning Renata Livraghi Università di Parma Prof. Renata Livraghi

Some considerations We talk of “transition” to refer to: -the shift from an educational level to another -the shift from School-to-Work -the move from an occupation to another Issues arising from transition would not be so relevant if labour market and educational system would be perfectly aligned and interrelated. Transition usually results in human capital destruction for those involved, also affecting development in economic and social terms Prof. Renata Livraghi

Employment status over the first year of graduation in Italy (3-year degree) In Employment: 45.7% Not in employment/Not in search of employment: 33.4% Not in employment/In search of employment: 20.9% Male workforce: 45.7% Female workforce: 45.7%

Prof. Renata Livraghi Employment status over the first year of graduation in Italy (5-year degree) In Employment: 55.9% Not in employment/Not in search of employment: 17.8% Not in employment/In search of employment: 26.3% Males: 60.9% Females: 52.3%

Prof. Renata Livraghi Employment status after five years of graduation in Italy (before the reform in the educational system) In Employment: 81.9% Not in employment/Not in search of employment: 8.0% Not in employment/In search of employment: 10.1% Males: 86.8% Females: 78.9%

A certain theory not confirmed by facts The “mainstream” approach is an attempt to deal with problems on a rational basis, whether affecting individuals or society on the whole, which inspires a number of provisions built on what A.Sen termed as the ambition of common sense. In accordance with such principle, decisions made at an individual and community level both result from a general theory related to rational behaviour Current economic theories do not seem to be confirmed by practical facts, leading to issues associated with transition. Prof. Renata Livraghi

Traditional theories associated with capital as a “metaphor” away from reality Shortcomings in theories associated with human capital - Individual choices made on a rational basis in order to achieve personal interests - Misguiding information - Individuals as an heterogeneous entity - Human behaviour investigated on the basis of over simplistic behavioural models (the focus is on earnings neglecting motivation and social achievements) - Failure in labour market Prof. Renata Livraghi

The impact of shortcomings in human capital and labor market failure theories Shortcomings in human capital and labor market failure theories have an impact on the individual well-being in both social and economic terms As a result, it emerges the need to resort to the ethical principle, that is to shift from a “positive” to a “normative” economics. (Aristotele, A. Smith Teoria dei sentimenti morali, A. Sen) Motivation and achievements in both social and economic terms to be interrelated and associated with ethical principles (What to do? How to live?) also by means of provisions and institutions Prof. Renata Livraghi

Ethics, rules and institutions The “Rule” (decisional mechanism) might be regarded as the way individuals make decisions (according to private information). The “Institution” is defined as a set of rules of a binding nature for people as a part of the society Ethics, rules and institutions allow for putting forward shared goals for the benefit of the community The issue of the transition might be solved by means of higher apprenticeship Prof. Renata Livraghi

Higher appenticeship: policy and process evaluation Such policy focuses on human development and economic growth without causing unbalances as in the case of traditional theory of human capital. In this connection, this policy has produced a negative results as we are still unable to apply it as we its implementation process have been neglected. In order to relate all the elements involved, it would be advisable to set up a sort of “agency” so as to put together information, trust, credibility, coordination and cooperation Prof. Renata Livraghi